22

"Then, making myself better acquainted with this law, I published, in 1855, a large volume upon 'Cohesion,' and, in 1859, another upon the Origin and Propagation of Force,' in which I have perfectly explained these principles, trusting to my own proofs and experience. Moreover, I published in 1861, in the form of a letter addressed to M. Tramblay, director of the Cosmos, a third paper in reference to the same subject. But yourself, sir, a physicist of the greatest reputation, and who have taken quite a different direction in science not attempted by any other, must know very well how difficult it is, even for those who sincerely wish the triumph of truth, to leave ideas and old practices in which they have grown up. To attain this result we must have confidence in ourselves. New ideas, however clear and judicious they may be, are never adopted immediately, but by degrees, so that those who are occupied with the same question, already explained by their predecessors, fancy themselves the discoverers and authors. After several generations, however, when the tomb is closed above all, historians and commentators will reestablish the truth of the facts, and render them due justice.

"Mr. Faraday, your fellow-countryman, gave me that great satisfaction, and his powerful testimony has paid me more than I ever could hope, for the oblivion with which several of my contemporaries wished to cover me, who endeavoured to uphold one another without attaining anything but ridicule, the public always being just and free from prejudice, even if the question is above their intelligence.

"Let us console ourselves, Sir, should our efforts rest in obscurity, and not be valued as we suppose just; let us be assured that those who will follow us will know how to sift the true from the false, that they will adopt the one and reject the other; and that, if the opinions we have exhibited are just and exact, they will be duly valued one day. But we shall not complain for the present to see our reputation injured by errors we have incurred, perhaps at the first moment, for these errors will have the definitive result of classing us according to merit in the history of science.

"I have the honour to be, with the greatest respect, "Sir,

"Your most obedient, humble servant,
"SEGUIN, Aîné."

In connection with a conversation on the solutions of different salts with which almost all the waters in England are contaminated, and the practical evils resulting from these impurities to steam-boilers, Mr. SPENCE stated that various means had been adopted, with only partial success, for preventing incrustation on boilers caused by these impurities. For some years he had adopted a simple plan, which is perfectly successful, both at Goole, where the

(CHEMICAL NEWS,

Jan. 10, 1863.

Aire and Calder canal has a considerable amount of lime salts, and also at his Newton works, where the water from the Rochdale canal is not only impregnated with lime salts, but apparently also with sulphate or chloride of iron. The plan is as follows:-On the suction part of the waterpipe by which the boiler is supplied, that is, between the force pump and the canal, a small vessel is placed, capable of containing about two gallons of water; a pipe of half an inch diameter, with a stop cock, communicates from the water-pipe with this vessel; every day the boiler man puts into this vessel 1 lb. or 14 lb., as found sufficient, of soda ash, and dissolves it in water in the vessel, and then, when pumping into the boiler, turns the small cock, and in three or four minutes all the solution is taken up and passed through the force pump into the boiler, and this is daily repeated; the consequence is, that not the slightest crust forms on the boilers, and no chipping is ever required, the salts being all decomposed, and the earthy and metallic bases thrown down as mud, which may be blown off or cleaned out periodically, if the boiler is a flued one. These two boilers are cleaned out monthly, and a broom and shovel are the only tools required. The plan is easily adopted, perfectly efficient, and very generally applicable. Dr. JOULE drew attention to the great sacrifice of life by steam-boiler explosions. He believed that, in nearly every instance, rupture took place simply because the iron, by wear or otherwise, had become unable to withstand the ordinary working pressure. Various hypotheses set up to account for explosions were worse than useless, because they diverted attention from the real source of danger. He believed that one of these hypotheses-that which attributed explosions to the introduction of water into a boiler the plates of which are heated in consequence of deficiency of water-was quite inadequate to account for the facts; although weak boilers might be exploded at the moment of starting the engine, in consequence of the swelling of the water through renewed ebullition throwing hot water over the heated plates. The absolute necessity of employing the hydraulic test periodically had been pointed out so frequently that he considered that the neglect of it was highly criminal.

A paper was read by Mr. THOMAS HOPKINS, M.B.M.S., on the "Influence of the Earth's Rotation on Winds." PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SECTION. November 13, 1862.

ROBERT WORTHINGTON, Esq., F.R.A.S., President of the Section, in the Chair.

66

A paper by Mr. THOMAS HEELIS, F.R.A.S., entitled "Notes of Observations on n Argus," was read. A paper by Mr. THOMAS HEELIS, on Hydrometric Observations of the Water of the Mediterranean," was read. Mr. BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S., mentioned the following observations made by himself and Mr. Richard Dale, on October 24, 1862, at Mr. Worthington's observatory :-The night was remarkably clear. There was no moon, nor any decided indication of aurora in the north; but there was so much light in the atmosphere that the country around could be distinctly seen, and houses and hedgerows at a distance clearly perceived. This apparent luminosity of the atmosphere continued for two hours, and the night then became very dark, but still remained very clear. Mr. Baxendell afterwards noticed that objects at a distance were seen much more distinctly on this occasion than when the moon was seven days old.

MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.
November 17, 1862.

J. G. LYNDE, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E., in the Chair. Capt. RANDALL, late of the barque Brazil, forwarded eight soundings, taken on the north coast of the Brazils. Mr. THOMAS HEELIS presented a specimen of the Echeneis remora, or sucking fish.

Mr. J. PARRY presented a number of cells and rings in

cardboard. They were very smooth and sharply cut, without the bur usually produced by punching out cells. Mr. Parry explained that they were cut in a lathe, twenty to thirty together, the outside cuttings only presenting an appreciable bur.

Dr. ROBERTS called attention to the aid that might be received in the examination of the structure of animal and vegetable tissue by the use of colouring materials. Magenta is peculiarly adapted for this purpose, in consequence of its solubility in simple water and its inert chemical character. The nuclear structures of animal cells are deeply tinted by magenta, and by its use the nuclei of the pale blood corpuscles, of pus globules, of the renal and hepatic cells, and of all epithelial structures, are brought out in great beauty, tinted of a bright carbuncle red. The red blood discs are tinted of a faint rose colour, and a darker red speck, not hitherto noticed, is to be observed on the periphery of the corpuscle. It undergoes some changes when treated with tannin, and subsequently with caustic potash, but this point is still under investigation. Dr. Roberts exhibited drawings and mounted specimens to illustrate his views.

Mr. JOHN LEIGH, M.R.C.S., exhibited a case of microscopical dissecting instruments, by Messrs. Wood, of Manchester, which were highly approved of for completeness and finish.

Mr. THOMAS H. NEVILL exhibited, with dark ground illumination, some fine specimens of Conochilus volvox.

NOTICES OF PATENTS.

2562. Apparatus employed in Reducing Straw and other Vegetable Substances in the Manufacture of Pulp for Making Paper. F. B. HOUGHTON, Kensington. Dated October 14, 1861.

For the purposes of this invention the patentee employs a cylindrical-shaped boiler, within which a shaft, with blades, is kept constantly rotating, whilst the straw or other vegetable material is being submitted to the action of the caustic lye. Steam is introduced into the cylinder to maintain the ebullition, and pipes are provided for the purpose of supplying the water necessary to wash the reduced pulp prior to its removal from the boiler.

2574. Re-working Waste Vulcanised India-rubber. T. FORSTER, Sparrow Hall, Streatham. Dated October 16, 1861.

For this purpose the vulcanised India-rubber is reduced to a suitable condition by crushing between rollers or otherwise, and is then mixed with sulphur and guttapercha. Whenever desirable, pigments may be incorporated with the before-mentioned mixture.

It has become a common practice to re-work perished vulcanised goods by some such process as that just described. The specification of Mr. J. R. Hunt, of earlier date, claims the union of finely-divided India-rubber with masticated gutta-percha.

2580. Apparatus for, and Method of, Increasing the Illuminating Power of Gas. W. SMITH, Salisbury Street, Adelphi, London. A communication. Dated October 17, 1861.

THIS invention consists in the use of a small chamber or vessel, charged with benzol, or other liquid hydrocarbon, and provided with a system of capillary tubes, by means of which the evaporation of such liquid is promoted during the passage of the gas.

The apparatus is very similar in principle to that described by Mr. W. J. Williams † for effecting the same purpose.

* Vide CHEMICAL NEWS, vol. v., p. 138.
+ Vide CHEMICAL NEWS, vol. vii. page 10.

23

2597. Apparatus for the Simultaneous Manufacture of While Lead and Vinegar. C. D. ABEL, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane. A communication. Dated October 18, 1861.

THIS invention relates to the simultaneous manufacture of white lead and vinegar, and is carried out by erecting a lead-corroding room above that in which the vats are placed, wherein the formation of vinegar is being conducted; the acetic acid escaping from the vinegar tubs is allowed to rise into the lead-corroding room, and there assists in converting the metallic lead into carbonate of lead. A very dangerous suggestion! for there is every probability of the vinegar becoming itself contaminated with lead.

2551. Compound to Prevent the Incrustation and Sediment

of Calcareous Matters in Boilers. E. T. HUGHES, Chancery Lane, London. A communication. Dated October 12, 1861. (Not proceeded with.)

THIS composition is prepared by mixing together soda crystals and alum, dissolved in water, the former being employed in excess; red ochre and the refuse starch from potatoes are then, in the form of a paste, added to the other ingredients.

The soda and red ochre would, undoubtedly, serve a useful purpose, but the addition of an organic matter like potato-starch would, on the contrary, be detrimental, and likely to induce frothing.

2233. Alexis Jean Moreau and Adolphe Ernest Ragon, Bernard Street, Russell Square, London, "Improvements in the mode of, and apparatus for, treating bituminous and carbonaceous substances for the purpose of obtaining the various products, volatile, liquid, and solid, which they contain, and also in the treatment and application of such products."

2234. Alexis Jean Moreau and Adolphe Ernest Ragon, Bernard Street, Russell Square, London, "Improvements in the manufacture of gas and coke."-Petitions recorded August 9, 1862.

2266. James Dickson, Tollington Road, Holloway, Middlesex, "Improvements in obtaining sodium from certain sources of that metal."

2314. John Cimeg, Great James Street, Bedford Row,

NEWS.

UTILISATION OF PEAT.

A PROJECT has just been set on foot for this purpose, which, if the account given of it could be accepted as correct, might be of important influence on three very considerable branches of industrial art-viz., the supply of fuel, the manufacture of iron, and the manufacture of gas. The latter two, if they are not in a state of perfection, are, at any rate, carried on in this country according to such a thoroughly organised system, that any proposed means of modification relating to them, either as regards the materials employed, or the mode of procedure, must necessarily be of a very unquestionable and well-established character as to its practicability. The use of coal as fuel is likewise so universal in this country, and the principles of its application are so well understood, that there seems to be little room for alteration or improvement beyond the adoption of means for its more economic use, and for its purification. It is, therefore, somewhat surprising to find a proposal made for substituting peat for coal as fuel for steam-navigation and other purposes, for iron smelting, and as a material for producing gas. This, however, is the nature of the project referred to for the utilisation of peat. Under the title of the "Condensed Peat Company," a proposal is made to submit peat to a preparative treatment of pugging and moulding, by which it is to be rendered compact, and as dense as coal. The cost at which it is stated, in the prospectus of this proposed Company, that peat may be so prepared, is not to exceed that of coal at the pit's mouth. The grounds on which this project has been put forward are stated to be the probable failure of the supply of coal, the freedom of peat from sulphur, and some others of less importance. As regards the first of these, it may safely be said, that, if apprehended failure of the supply of coal is in any way well founded, that failure must be of such remote probability, that the suggestion of a substitute is, at any rate, premature at the present time. The freedom of peat, or rather of some varieties of peat, from sulphur, is certainly an advantage in its favour; but it must be remembered, that there are means of purifying coal, and separating the sulphur from it, which are quite equal to meeting any requirements that may arise for a fuel free from sulphur. This object is certainly not more easily attainable by the use of peat as fuel, than it is by the purification of coal.

But there is another reason assigned for the proposed introduction of peat for the purposes above named viz., the assumption that it will do double the duty of coal, or, in other words, that it has twice the fuel value of coal. If this were the case, no doubt there would be room for an entire revolution of those branches of industry in which the use of fuel is an essential element.

This, however, is not the case. If there is any subject connected with the arts which is thoroughly well understood, and beyond all question, it is the comparative value of different kinds of fuel. The principles which determine the value of fuel are well known, and practical expcrience has fully confirmed the results arrived at, with regard to this point, by scientific investigation. Those results have established the fact, that peat is a very much inferior fuel to coal, though superior to wood; and it is well known that, though peat is used in some places as steam-fuel for engines and for smelting purposes, that is done only where coal cannot be had. Even in such cases, it is often found preferable to import coal, than to have recourse to the peat which abounds in many localities where fuel is required.

The mechanical preparation of peat that is now prcposed to be adopted for the purpose of improving its texture and physical characters as a fuel, has no kind of influence on its chemical composition; and it is this composition which constitutes the inferiority of peat as a fuel, when compared with coal.

This view of the subject is founded-not upon a comparison of ordinary air-dried peat with coal-but upon the comparison of absolutely dry peat with average coal. There is no kind of doubt or uncertainty as to the composition of coal or of peat in that condition. These data are generally recognised and well established, quite inde pendent of opinion, and altogether above the necessity for belief. The comparison is, therefore, a comparison of facts, and its result is quite in accordance with the universal experience, that absolutely dry peat has not much more than half the calorific power of ordinary coal.

From this point of view, then, alone, it is evident that peat cannot compete with coal for those purposes which involve a large consumption of fuel. Besides this, the characters of bulk and texture of ordinary peat, even when it is made absolutely dry by kiln-drying, are such, that it cannot be substituted for coal. Undoubtedly, peat can be so prepared as to become applicable, in this respect, to the purposes for which coal is used; but, as before remarked, that preparation will only affect these characters of bulk and texture; it will not in any degree influence its calorific power,-that will still remain little more than half the calorific power of coal.

But then, in regard to such a preparation of peat es would render it absolutely dry, of a density equal to that of coal, and of such texture that it would equally well bear a blast, its practicability, in a commercial point of view, must be considered. The question of the cost of such preparation naturally arises, and is of quite as much importance as the actual value of the material produced by it. Taking all the circumstances of the case into consideration, it is by no means unreasonable to regard with great suspicion the assumption, that this prepared peat can be produced at the average cost of coal at the pit's mouth, especially in the absence of any statement of the data on which this assumption is founded. The