are applied, is the class of mental objects, or incoporeal beings; as mind, soul, spirit, angel, God. This class of existences is entirely different from material things: known indeed with no less certainty, but by a totally different kind of evidence. The mind is the immortal part of man; endowed with reason, consciousness, memory, and other faculties, of which each person has the knowledge within himself. We are certain that we have reasoning or thinking faculties, because we think. This class of being therefore, is ascertained by our inward consciousness, as clearly as material objects are exhibited to our bodily organs.

The knowledge of spiritual existences, must in the earliest ages, either have been the subject of divine revelation, or it is a conscious truth, springing up with the first dawnings of reason in the mind; for there seems never to have been a language on earth, which did not in its essential structure, recognize this class of unseen beings.

99. 4. Mental qualities. Mind as well as matter has its qualities; a recognition of which enters into the general principles of language. Wisdom, benevolence, cunning, belong to mind, as light, heat, and smoothness do to bodies: but there is nothing in the organization of speech, connected with the inquiry how mental qualities exist in the mind itself: for, among all nations, language must have received its general cast, and made great advances, before men learn to reason concerning their own reasoning powers. There is an other reason, which may explain this principle, hitherto unexplained, as it is connected with the structure of language. The idea of the mind itself, as a separate existence, is inferential. Its qualities therefore are deduced

by secondary inference; and both these classes of inferential conceptions must be referred to sensible objects, before they can acquire a definite perceptible form, and be communicated from one intelligent being to an other.

100. 5. Attendant circumstances. This class of words Mr. Locke calls modes of matter; as, evening, morning, motion, weather, a storm, an earthquake, a fever: the fall of the leaf. Here it will be observed that fall is not the name of the leaf, nor of any thing which inheres in it, or essentially belongs to it; but the mere happening, which affects it only for a moment. Evening is not the name of a substance, nor of any inherent quality of the earth or the air. As the earth turns on its axis, it intercepts, at regular periods, the rays of the sun, and darkness ensues. The name of this circumstance, attendant on the earth's revolution, is called night, and in its first approaches, evening. The same observations apply to the very numerous words of this class. Mental existences, as well as material bodies, have their attendant circumstances. Soul is a mental object. Consciousness is one of its essential qualities: joy and grief, anger, shame, gratitude, resentment, &c. are its temporary affections, or attendant circumstances.

It is found in philosophic parsing, that the affections of the mind, as they exist in human beings, and extend to the structure of speech, are so closely allied to "modes of matter," that it is not expedient for any purpose of practical utility, to attempt a complete separation between them.

101. 6. Fictions of the imagination, as Polyphe mus; the Goddess Calypso; Queen Mab of the Fays or Fairies; a golden mountain; the dog

Cerberus ; Utopia; Lilliput; a firy flying Dragon; a griffin; a Titan; Raw Head and Bloody Bones. A Phenix; A Mermaid; Midas's Ears, Aladdin's Lamp.

102. 7. Complex Ideas. Though it is convenient to give a separate contemplation to this class of words, it is impossible accurately to mark its outline because the ideas comprehended under nouns in general, are more or less complex. Many names, however, embrace more particularly a great number of objects, as an aggregate whole. Such are the terms, landscape, city, nation, uniA history is not the name of a single object; but includes in its complex idea all the varied scenes and events which history records.

verse.

a

Nouns which name groups of similar objects, as a collective whole, are called nouns of multitude; as, an army of men; a flock of wild geese; an assembly of divines; a society; a company; congress of kings. Here the idea of the single group is plural, in reference to the individuals, yet the noun superadds the plural form for the numeral increase of the aggregate.

103. 8. The names applied to our own species, in their absolute and relative capacity, are so numerous, that although they fall in part under the other classes of nouns, it is convenient to place them entirely as a distinct sort. These words may be subdivided into two kinds, absolute and relative. An absolute name is one which applies to any being or thing, for what it positively is, and the name remains, while the thing continues unchanged. Relative names are given to things, in consequence of some state or condition in which they are placed, in reference to other objects.

Thus the word person, is a name applying absolutely to any one of the human species, and the name continues to apply, so long as the being may exist. The name uncle, on the other hand, is entirely relative: for the individual so called, can bear this title no longer than while he has a neph w or niece; but must, independent of any change in himself, cease to be an uncle, if all the persons to whom he is thus related should die. Parent, son, daughter, brother, sister, king, subject, citizen, teacher, captain, master, servant, soldier, judge, printer, and a vast number of similar words, which relate to man in his complicated character, are all mere relative terms.

The names of sensible objects also are frequently relative; as, the end of a stick, the top of the house, the north and south poles, the Zenith and nadir; an extract, quotation, abridgment, the essence of lavender, valleys, mountains, hills, dales, banks.

104. Though these classes of things exist in the structure of every language, and have their foundation in nature, and the condition of man, at all times, no skill can draw a complete separating line between them. They run into each other by imperceptible degrees, and mingle in endless forms of combination. It is not therefore necessary, in practice, to aim at infallibility in the application of principles, the unerring use of which would require nothing less than the perfection of knowledge. The exercises under this system of explanation will be found exceedingly improving in expanding the mind; increasing its acumen, and forming habits of philosophic investigation: and though the beginning should be very defective, every step in the progress will increase the facility

of ulterior advance. The author has, in the way of his own experience, seen more benefit resulting to pupils from this philosophic adaptation of words to things, than in any other scholastic exercise on the science of language.

105. Having examined the different classes of things, in nature and art, to which nouns are applied, we shall next attend to them as consisting of a single object, or a of plurality.

The addition of s or es, or of any other modification to a noun singular, to denote more objects than one, may be called a grammatical plural. The manner of forming this plural depends on the special or conventional regulations of each particular tongue.

106. There are two ways of forming the plural of nouns, philosophically considered, and this is a principle, common perhaps to all languages.

1st. When for instance we speak of dollars, we mean simple numerical increase, from the singular. Ten thousand of these coins may be cast in the same die, and as to all perceivable qualities, may be exactly alike. Neither does the mind necessarily conceive of them under any idea of variety, but mere increase of number.

2. But when we speak of drugs and medicines, the leading intention of the mind is variety; and the idea of number, which is vaguely implied, is consequential and subsidiary. The general understanding is, that no two things of a kind are included under the idea contained in the expression; but different articles, used for medicinal purposes. The conception of specific number is so foreign from this kind of plural, that to say, twelve drugs and fifteen medicines, strikes the ear of every one as entirely new and whimsical.