Morals2 were treated by Abelard in a peculiar manner.3 The later schoolmen, after the example of Lombard, handled them but cursorily in their books on theological learning. The Summa de virtutibus et vitiis,5 of the Dominican Guilelmi Peraldi († 1250) and the Secunda Secundae of Thomas Aquinas are worthy of notice. Casuistry as well as moral philosophy was brought into a scholastic and scientific form, by Raymund de Pennaforti, in the place of the antient libri poenitentiales; on account of its importance in the performance of ecclesiastical offices it was held in higher estimation than they were. The mystics Bernard, Hugo and Richard de St Victor, and Bonaventura, did more to develop and recommend the means of extending that morality, which mysticism prescribes, than to enrich the science of moral philosophy.8 While the intrepretation of the Old Testament was so remarkably advanced among the Jews, by such men as R. Solomon Jarchi from Troyes († after 1105), R. Aben Esra from Toledo († 1167) R. David Kimchi at Narbonne (about † 1230) and R. 2 On the moral philosophy of the Schoolmen in general see de Wette Gesch. d. christlichen Sittenlehre ii. 116. Stäudlin's Gesch. d. Moralphilosophie s. 466. His Gesch. d. Sittenlehre Jesu. iv. 298. 3 See Ethica under the title: Scito te ipsum in B. Pezii thesaur. anecdot. III. ii. 627. (comp. § 73. not. 16.) in abstract in Cramer v. ii. 384, and de Wette ii. 124. On his peculiarities see Stäudlin's Gesch. d. Moralphilosophie s. 478 ff. His Gesch. d. Sittenlehre Jesu. iv. 304. Neander d. heil. Bernhard. s. 130. 174 ff. Frerichs comm. de P. Abaelardi doctrina dogmatica et morali. Jenae 1827. 4. p. 28 ss. Statements from his Ethics were brought against him at the Council of Sens, see in the Capit. errorum Abael. cap. xiii. and xix. above § 73. note 23. Joh. Sarisbur. metalogic. lib. ii. c. 11: An voluptas bona sit, an praeeligenda virtus, an in summo bono habitudines, an sit in indigentia laborandum, purus et simplex dialecticus raro examinat. 5 Often publisht, last at Paris 1629. 4. An abstract is found in Schröckh xxix. 298. de Wette ii. 169. 6 Extracts in Schröckh xxix. 111. de Wette ii. 137. Staudlin's Gesch. d. Moralphilos. s. 494 ff. Gesch. der Sittenl. Jesu iv. 337. 7 Summa de poenitentia et matrimonio, customarily Summa Raymundiana, often published, e. g., cum glossis Johannis de Friburgo, Romae 1603. fol. There is an abridgement in Schröckh xxviii. 116. On casuistry in general see de Wette ii. 206. 8 On this head see Schröckh xxix. 263. Stäudlin's Gesch. d. Sittenlehre Jesu iv. 406 de Wette ii. 208. Moses ben Maimon in Cordova († at Cairo in 1205) among the western Christians the interpretation of Scripture was neither held in due estimation as a study,10 nor pursued in the right manner. The text of the Latin Vulgate, which stood in the place of the original text, was much corrupted by ignorance of criticism; and the attempts to mend it, only increased the confusion.11 The interpretation was drawn almost exclusively from the fathers of the Church: with regard to the meaning of the words, most men were satisfied with the borrowed resources of the Glossa ordinaria,1 and the Glossa interlinearis of Anselm, Dean and Scholastic at Laon († 1117.)18 › Concerning these writers see Rich. Simon hist. crit. du vieux. Testam. p. 170 ss. Wolfii biblioth. hebraea vol. i. G. W. Meyer's Gesch. d. Schrifterklärung seit d. Wiederherstellung d. Wissenchaften i. 85. 1 cf. Rogerius Bacon in Opus majus P. ii. c. 4. p. 28: Baccalaureus, qui legit textum (Holy Scripture), succumbit lectori Sententiarum, et [hic] ubique in omnibus honoratur et praefertur. Nam ille, qui legit sententias, habet principalem horam legendi secundum suam voluntatem, habet et socium et cameram apud religiosos: sed qui legit Bibliam, caret his, et mendicat horam legendi secundum quod placet lectori Sententiarum. Et qui legit Summas, disputat ubique, et pro magistro habetur; reliquus, qui textum legit, non potest disputare: sicut fuit hoc anno Bononiae et in multis aliis locis: quod est absurdum. Manifestum est igitur, quod textus illius facultatis (theology) subjicitur uni Summae magistrali.-Omnis alia Facultas utitur textu suo solo, et legitur textus in scholis, quod scito textu sciuntur omnia, quae pertinent ad Facultatem, propter quam textus sunt facti : et longe majus est, quod textus hic de ore Domini et Sanctorum allatus mundo est, ita magnus, quod vix sufficeret aliquis lector ad perlegendum eum in tota vita sua. 11 cf. Humphrey Hody de Bibliorum textibus originalibus. Oxon. 1705. fol. p. 416 ss. Literarisches Museum (Altorf 1787) Bd. 1. St. 1. S. 1 ff. St. 2. S. 77 ff. St. 3. S. 344 ff. Meyer's Gesch. d. Schriftausleg. i. 93. L. van Ess pragmat. krit. Gesch. d. Vulgata. Tübingen 1824. S. 160. About 1144 Cardinal Nicolas complains (see Hody p. 417): exemplaria,-quae a doctissimis viris dicebantur correcta,adeo discrepabant, ut paene quot codices tot exemplaria reperirem. Also the different Correctoria Bibliae were subjects of party jealousy to the mendicant friars. On their mode of proceeding cf. Roger. Bacon epist. ad Clem. iv. in Hody p. 429: Quilibet lector in Ordine Minorum corrigit, ut vult, et similiter aqud Praedicatores,-et quilibet mutat, quod non intelligit etc. 12 See above Div. i. § 10. note 16. 13 Often publisht together with the Glossa ordinaria. There is an Among the exegetical works of this age Abelard's commentary on the epistle to the Romans, and the expositio continua in Evangelia (Catena aurea in Evangelia)1 by Thomas Aquinas are distinguisht chiefly for their efforts for an historical and grammatical interpretation. As an exegetical compiler cardinal Hugo of St Chers († 1263) is most eminent.15 Too vast to be overlookt are the exegetical remains16 of this age, in which mystics, as Bernard of Clairvaux, and Rupert, Abbot of Deutz († 1135)1 and Schoolmen as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura, lingering18 with especial affection on the most difficult books of the Bible, endeavoured to ascertain the fourfold meaning of Holy Writ.19 But our compassion only is roused at the sight of so much acuteness, so unprofitably squandered. unfavourable opinion of Anselmus Laudunensis in Abaelardi hist. calamit. suar. c. 3. 14 Tholuck de Thoma Aquin. atque Abaelardo interpretibus Novi Test. (Hall. Osterprogr. 1842.) On Thomas see Rich. Simon hist. crit. des principaux commentateurs du Nouv. Test. p. 470. 15 Properly Hugues de St Chers. On him see Quetif et Echard scriptt, Ord. Praedicatt. i. 194. Hist. litt. de la France xix. 38. His Postillae in universa biblia juxta quadruplicem sensum ed. Basil, 1498 and 1504. Paris. 1548. vii. voll. fol.-His Concordantiae sacrorum bibliorum (Concord. s. Jacobi.) ed. Basil. 1543 and 1551. fol. first brought the division of the Bible into chapters into general use. 15 Concerning these see Cramer vi. 81. Schröckh xxviii. 321. 17 Opp. ed. Mogunt. 1631. ii. voll. fol. (There was a pirated edition full of faults issued at Paris. 1638) cf. Hist. littéraire de la France xi. 422. 18 Ed. Cunitz hist. crit. de l'interprétation du cantique des cantiques, thèse. Strasbourg 1834. 4. p. 20. Johannes Saresburiensis, otherwise so clear, gives in to this custom, Policraticus lib. vii. c. 12: Divinae paginae libros, quorum singuli apices divinis pleni sunt sacramentis, tanta gravitate legendos forte concesserim, eo quod thesaurus Spiritus sancti, cujus digito scripti sunt, omnino nequeat exhauriri. Licet enim ad unum tantummodo sensum accommodata sit superficies literae, multiplicitas mysteriorum intrinsecus latet. Et ab eadem re saepe allegoria fidem, tropologia mores variis modis aedificat, anagoge quoque multipliciter sursum ducit, ut litera non modo verbis, sed rebus ipsis instituat. At in liberalibus disciplinis, ubi non res, sed duntaxat verba significant, quisquis pro sensu literae contentus non est, aberrare videtur mihi etc. FIFTH CHAPTER. HISTORY OF DIVINE SERVICE. Liturgical Works of this age: Ivonis Carnotensis1 († 1115) micrologus de ecclesiasticis observationibus (in Melch. Hittorpii de divinis cath. Eccl. officiis ac ministeriis varii vetustorum scriptt. libri. Colon. 1568. p. 434. and in Biblioth. PP. Lugd. xviii. 469.)-Ruperti Tuitiensis († 1135) de divinis officiis libb. xii. (in Opp. ii. 750.)—Jo. Belethi (according to Henricus Gandav. theologicae scholae rector Parisiis, according to Albericus chron. p. 363 floruit in Ecclesia Ambianensi about 1182) divinorum officiorum ac eorundem rationum brevis explicatio (prim ed. Corn. Laurimann. Antv. 1553. 8. frequently appended to the Rationale Durantis.) ---Principal Work: Guilelmi Durantis (his name is Durantis or Duranti not Durandus) Episc. Mimatensis († 1296 see Savigny's Gesch. d. röm. Rechts im Mittelalter v. 501. Hist. litt. de la France xx. 411) Rationale divinorum officiorum libb. viii. (according to lib. viii. c. 9. it was composed in the year 1286, it was often publisht in the 15th and 16th centuries, also at Venice in 1609. 4.) § 77. HISTORY OF THE SACRAMENTS. The doctrine of the change of elements in the Lord's Supper, as it was determined in opposition to Berengarius, was by no means universally received in the 12th century. In particular it That Ivo is the author, Wharton has discovered in the Auctar. historiae, J. Usserii de Scripturis et Sacris vernaculis. Lond. 1690. 4. p. 395. 2 Zacharias Ep. Chrysopolitanus (about 1157) comm. in Monotessaron (Bibl. PP. Lugd. xix.) lib. iv. c. 156: Sunt nonnulli, imo forsan multi, sed vix notari possunt, qui cum damnato Berengario idem sentiunt, et tamen eundem cum Ecclesia damnant. In hoc videlicet damnant eum, quia formam ve rborum Ecclesiae abjiciens, nuditate sermonis scandalum movebat. Non sequebatur, ut dicunt, usum Scripturarum, quae passim res significantes tanquam significatas did not agree with the opinions of the mystics, who loved a appellant, praesertim in sacramentis, ut eorum virtutes exprimant. Aliis vero latenter imponunt, quod non intelligant tropos et figuratas locutiones, ideoque miserabili morte animae signa pro rebus accipiant Illud quoque maxime derident, quod panis et vini species dicunt in aëre apparere; quidam vero, sensus corporeos falli post conversionem panis et vini in carnem et sanguinem Christi etc. Cf. Rupertus Abb. Tuitiensis comm. in Johannem lib. vi. c. 6.—The different opinions of this age concerning the Lord's Supper are thus given by Algéras Presbyter of Liege, afterwards monk of Cluny (about 1130) in prologo in lib. de Sacram. corp. et. sang. Dom. Bibl. PP. Lugd. xxi. 251 (in the Voyage littéraire de deux relig. Bénéd. ii. 125, this passage is attributed to an anonymous writer): Alii panem et vinum non mutatum, sed solum sacramentum, sicut aquam baptismatis, vel oleum chrismatis, corpus Christi non vere, sed figurate vocare dicunt.-Alii autem dicunt, panem non solum sacramentum, sed in pane Christum quasi impanatum, sicut Deum in carne personaliter incarnatum. Alii autem panem et vinum in carnem et sanguinem mutari, sed non Christi, sed cujuslibet filii hominis sancti et Deo accepti, ut compleatur, quod Christus dixit; nisi manducaveritis carnem filii hominis, non habebitis vitam in vobis. Alii autem gratiae Dei derogantes dicunt, sacerdotum malis meritis ita invocationem divini nominis annullari, ut eorum indigna consecratione non debeat panis in Christi carnem converti. Alii vero mutari quidem in carnem Christi, sed malis meritis sumentium non permanere carnem Christi, sed iterum reverti in purum sacramentum panis et vini. Alii, quod est deterius, dicunt, per comestionem in foedae digestionis converti corruptionem. 3 Cf. Bernardi sermo i. in coena Domini § 2. (Opp. ed. Mabillon ii. 87) Sacramentum dicitur sacrum signum sive sacrum secretum. Multa siquidem fiunt propter se tantum, alia vero propter alia designanda, et ipsa dicuntur signa et sunt. Ut enim de usualibus sumamus exemplum: datur annulus absolute propter annulum, et nulla est significatio: datur ad investiendum de hereditate aliqua, et signum est; ita ut jain dicere possit, qui accipit: annulus non valet quicquam, sed hereditas est, quam quaerebam. In hunc itaque modum appropinquans passioni Dominus de gratia sua investire curavit suos, ut invisibilis gratia signo aliquo visibili praestaretur. Ad hoc instituta sunt omnia sacramenta, ad hoc eucharistiae participatio, ad hoc pedum ablutio, ad hoc denique ipse baptismus, initium sacramentorum omniun etc. Sermo in festo s. Martini § 10 (I. c. p. 181): usque hodie eadem caro nobis, sed spiritualiter utique, non carnaliter, exhibetur.-Rupertus Tuitiensis de Trinitate et operibus ejus in Exodum lib. ii. cap. 10 (Opp. ed. Mogunt. 1631. i. 191): Totum attribuetis operationi Spiritus sancti, cujus effectus non est destruere vel corrumpere substantiam, quamcunque suos in usus assumit, sed substantiae bono permanenti, quod erat, invisibiliter adjicere, quod non erat. Sicut naturam humanam non destruxit, cum illam operatione sua ex utero Virginis Deus Verbo in unitatem personae conjunxit: sic substantiam panis et vini, secundum exteriorem speciem quinque sensibus subjectam, non mutat aut destruit, |