all things. This doctrine of God, therefore, was con nected with his ethical opinions, by indicating the physical conditions of a happy life. It led him, however, to deviate from Socrates, and to declare that, in opposition to the vulgar polytheism, there is but one natural God, but many popular deities; that God cannot be known or recognised in any form or figure, since he is like to nothing on earth. Hence undoubtedly arose his allegorical explanation of mythology, and his doubts respecting the demoniac intimations of Socrates. Towards the close of his life, the gloomy cast of his mind and the moroseness of his temper in. creased to such a degree, as to render him troublesome to his friends, and an object of ridicule to his enemies. Antisthenes wrote many books, of which none are extant except two declamations under the names of Ajax and Ulysses. These were published in the collection of ancient orators by Aldus, in 1513; by H. Stephens, in 1575; and by Canter, as an appendix to his edition of Aristides, printed at Basle in 1566. For some remarks on the Cynic sect, vid. the article Diogenes. (Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 299, seqq. - Ritter's Hist. Anc. Phil., vol. 2, p. 108, seqq., Oxford trans.)

Thracian mother. In his youth he was engaged in military exploits, and acquired fame by the valour which he displayed in the battle of Tanagra. His first studies were under the direction of the sophist Gorgias, who instructed him in the art of rhetoric. Soon grow ing dissatisfied with the futile labours of this school, he sought for more substantial wisdom from Socrates. Captivated by the doctrine and the manner of his new master, he prevailed upon many young men, who had been his fellow-students under Gorgias, to accompany him. So great was his ardour for moral wisdom, that, though he lived at the Piræus, he came daily to Athens to attend upon Socrates. Despising the pursuits of avarice, vanity, and ambition, Socrates sought the reward of virtue in virtue itself, and declined no labour or suffering which virtue required. This noble consistency of mind was the part of the character of Soc rates which Antisthenes chiefly admired; and he resolved to make it the object of his diligent imitation. While he was a disciple of Socrates, he discovered his propensity towards severity of manners by the meanness of his dress. He frequently appeared in a threadbare and ragged cloak. Socrates, who had great penetration in discovering the characters of men, remarking that Anthistenes took pains to expose, rather ANTISTIUS LABEO, a distinguished lawyer in the than to conceal, the tattered state of his dress, said to reign of Augustus, who, in the spirit of liberty, frehim, "Why so ostentatious? Through your rags Iquently spoke and acted with great freedom against see your vanity." While Plato and other disciples of Socrates were, after his death, forming schools in Athens, Antisthenes chose for his school a public place of exercise without the walls of the city, called the Cynosarges, whence some writers derive the name of the sect of which he was the founder. Others suppose that his followers were called Cynics from the habits of the school, which, to the more refined Athenians, appeared those of dogs rather than of men. Here he inculcated, both by precept and example, a rigorous discipline. In order to accommodate his own manners to his doctrine, he wore no other garment than a coarse cloak, suffered his beard to grow, and carried a wallet and staff like a wandering beggar. Undoubtedly this was nothing more than an expression of opposition to the gradually increasing luxury of the age; his wish and object being to bring men back to their original simplicity in life and manners. Thus he set himself directly against the tendency and civilization of his age, as is clear from many of his sayings, which are tinctured at once with bitterness and wit. And although this was scarcely more than a negative resistance, yet, as he obstinately placed himself in opposition to the circumstances in which he lived, and to the advancing progress of science, his position must naturally have reacted upon the feelings of his contemporaries towards himself. We consequently find that his school met with little encouragement, and this so annoyed him that he drove away the few scholars he had. Diogenes of Sinope, who resembled him in character, is said to have been the only one that remained with him to his death. The doctrine of Antisthenes was mainly confined to morals; but, even in this portion of philosophy, it is exceedingly meager and deficient, scarcely furnishing anything beyond a general defence of the olden simplicity and moral energy, against the luxurious indulgence and effeminacy of later times. Instead, however, of being duly tempered by the Socratic moderation, Antisthenes appears to have been carried to excess in his virtuous zeal against the luxury of the age; unless we suppose, what may perhaps be true, that in many of the accounts which have come down to us respecting him, his doctrine is painted in somewhat exaggerated colours. With regard to his religious tenets, it may be observed that Antisthenes, in accordance with the Socratic doctrine, maintained that, in the universe, all is regulated by a divine intelligence, from design, so as to benefit the good man, who is the friend of God. For the sage shall possess

the emperor. According to most commentators, Horace (Serm., 1, 3, 82), in order to pay his court to the monarch, salutes Labeo with the appellation of mad (Labeone insanior, &c.). But it has been well observed, in opposition to this, that, whatever respect the poet had for his emperor, we never find that he treats the patrons of liberty with outrage. Nor can we well imagine that he would dare thus cruelly to brand a man of Labeo's abilities, riches, power, and employments in the state, and to whom Augustus himself had offered the consulship. Bentley, Wieland, Wetzel, and other critics are of opinion, therefore, that this individual cannot be the one to whom Horace alludes, but that he refers to some other personage of the day, whose history has not come down to us. Bentley even goes so far as to suggest Labieno for Labeone in the text of Horace, and cites Seneca in support of his conjecture (Præf., ad lib., 5, Controv.), according to whom, Labienus was a public speaker of the day, so noted for the freedom of his tongue as to have received the name of Rabienus in derision. Heindorff, however, thinks that Horace may here actually refer to Antistius Labeo, not for the reason given by some of the commentators, but in allusion to his earlier years, and to a violent and impetuous temperament which he may have at that time possessed (ad Horat., l. c.).

ANTITAURUS, a chain of mountains, running from Armenia through Cappadocia to the west and southwest. It connects itself with the chain of Mount Taurus, between Cataonia and Lycaonia. (Vid. Taurus and Parvadres.-Mannert, vol. 6, pt. 2, p. 5.)

ANTIUM, a city of Italy, on the coast of Latium, about 32 miles below Ostia. According to Xenagoras, a Greek writer quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1, 73), the foundation of Antium is to be ascribed to Anthias, a son of Circe. Solinus (c. 8) attributes it to Ascenius. But, whatever may have been its origin, there can be no doubt that Antium was, at an early period, a maritime place of considerable note, since we find it comprised in the first treaty made by Rome with Carthage (Polyb., 3, 22); and Strabo remarks (232) that complaints were made to the Romans by Alexander and Demetrius, of the piracies exercised by the Antiates, in conjunction with the Tyrrhenians, on their subjects; intimating that it was done with the connivance of Rome. Antium appears also to have been the most considerable city of the Volsci; it was to this place, according to Plutarch, that Coriolanus retired after he had been banished from his cour

him great influence, even beyond the bounds of the | the deliverance of the emperor and his army from im. Roman empire; and neighbouring monarchs sponta-minent danger, by a victory over the Quadi, in corseneously made him the arbiter of their differences. quence of an extraordinary storm of rain, hail, and His private life was frugal and modest, and in his lightning, which disconcerted the barbarians, and was, mode of living and conversing he adopted that air of by the conquerors, regarded as miraculous. The cmequality and of popular manners which, in men of peror and the Romans attributed the timely event to high station, is at once so rare and attractive. Too Jupiter Tonans; but the Christians affirmed that God much indulgence to an unworthy wife (Faustina) is granted this favour on the supplications of the Christhe only weakness attributed to him, unless we include tian soldiers in the Roman army, who are said to have a small share of ridicule thrown upon his minute ex- composed the twelfth or Meletine legion; and, as a actness by those who are ignorant of its value in com- mark of distinction, we are informed by Eusebius that plicated business. He died A.D. 161, aged seventy- they received from an emperor who persecuted Christhree, having previously married Marcus Aurelius to tianity the title of the " Thundering Legion." Yet his daughter Faustina, and associated him with him- this account, not of a fact, but of the cause of one, and self in the cares of government. His ashes were de- that of such a nature as no human testimony can ever posited in the tomb of Hadrian, and his death was la- determine, was made the subject of a controversy, in mented throughout the empire as a public calamity. the early part of the last century, between Moyle and The sculptured pillar erected by Marcus Aurelius and the eccentric Whiston, the latter of whom elaborately the senate to his memory, under the name of the An- supported the genuineness of the miracle. The date tonine column, is still one of the principal ornaments of this event is fixed by Tillemont in A.D. 174. The of Rome. (Gorton's Biogr. Dict., vol. 4, p. 87, scqq.) general issue of the war was, that the barbarians were -II. MARCUS ANNIUS AURELIUS, was born at Rome repressed, but admitted to settle in the territories of A.D. 121. Upon the death of Ceionius Commodus, the empire as colonists; and a complete subjugation the Emperor Hadrian turned his attention towards of the Marcomanni might have, followed, had not the Marcus Aurelius; but he being then too young for an emperor been called off by the conspiracy of Avidius early assumption of the cares of empire, Hadrian Cassius, who assumed the purple in Syria. This adopted Antoninus Pius, on condition that he in his usurper was quickly destroyed by a conspiracy among turn should adopt Marcus Aurelius. His father dying his own officers; and the clemency shown by the em early, the care of his education devolved on his pater- peror to his family was most exemplary. After the nal grandfather, Annius Verus, who caused him to re- suppression of this revolt, he made a progress through ceive a general education; but philosophy so early be- the East, in which journey he lost his wife Faustina, came the object of his ambition, that he assumed the daughter of Antoninus Pius, a woman as dissolute as philosophic mantle when only twelve years old. The she was beautiful, but whose irregularities he never species of philosophy to which he attached himself seems to have noticed; a blindness or insensibility that was the stoic, as being most connected with morals has made him the theme of frequent ridicule. While and, the conduct of life; and such was the natural on this tour he visited Athens, added greatly to its sweetness of his temper, that he exhibited none of the privileges, and, like Hadrian, was initiated in the pride which sometimes attended the artificial eleva- Eleusinian Mysteries. His return to Rome did not tion of the stoic character. This was the more re- take place until after an absence of eight years, and markable, as all the honour and power that Antoninus his reception was in the highest degree popular and could bestow upon him became his own at an early splendid. After remaining in the capital for nearly period, since he was practically associated with him two years, and effecting several popular reforms, he in the administration of the empire for many years. was once more called away by the necessity of checkOn his formal accession to the sovereignty, his first ing the Marcomanni, and was again successful, but act was of a kind which at once proved his great dis- fell ill, at the expiration of two years, at Vindobōna, interestedness, for he immediately took Lucius Verus now Vienna. His illness arose from a pestilential disas his colleague, who had indeed been associated with ease which prevailed in the army; and it cut him off him by adoption, but who, owing to his defects and in the 59th year of his age, and 19th of his reign. vices, had been excluded by Antoninus from the suc- His death occasioned universal mourning throughout cession, which, at his instigation, the senate had con- the empire. Without waiting for the usual decree on fined to Marcus Aurelius alone. Notwithstanding the occasion, the Roman senate and people voted him their dissimilarity of character, the two emperors reign- a god by acclamation; and his image was long aftered conjointly without any disagreement. Verus took ward regarded with peculiar veneration. Marcus Authe nominal guidance of the war against the Parthians, relius, however, was no friend to the Christians, who which was successfully carried on by the lieutenants were persecuted during the greater part of his reign; under him, and, during the campaign, married Lucilla, an anomaly in a character so universally merciful and the daughter of his colleague. The reign of Marcus clement, that may be attributed to an excess of paAurelius was more eventful than that of Antoninus. gan devotion on his part, and still more to the influBefore the termination of the Parthian war, the Mar- ence of the sophists by whom he was surrounded. In comanni and other German tribes began those disturb- all other points of policy and conduct he was one of ances which more or less annoyed him for the rest of the most excellent princes on record, both in respect his life. Against these foes, after the termination of to the salutary regulations he adopted and the temper hostilities with Parthia, the two emperors marched; with which he carried them into practice. Compared but what was effected during three years' war and ne- with Trajan or Antoninus Pius, he possibly fell short gotiation, until the death of Verus, is little known. of the manly sense of the one, and the simple and unThe sudden decease of that unsuitable colleague, by an ostentatious virtue of the other; philosophy or scholarapoplexy, restored to Marcus Aurelius the sole domin- ship on a throne always more or less assuming the apion; and for the next five years he carried on the Pan-pearance of pedantry. The emperor was also himself nonian war in person, without ever returning to Rome. a writer, and his "Meditations," composed in the During these fatiguing campaigns he endured all the Greek language, have descended to posterity. They hardships incident to a rigorous climate and a military are a collection of maxims and thoughts in the spirit life, with a patience and serenity which did the high- of the stoic philosophy, which, without much connexist honour to his philosophy. Few of the particular ion or skill in composition, breathe the purest sentiactions of this tedious warfare have been fully descri- ments of piety and benevolence. Marcus Aurelius bed; although, owing to conflicting religious zeal, one left one son, the brutal Commodus, and three daughof them has been exceedingly celebrated. This was ters. Among the weaknesses of this good emperor,

Ac

ANTONIUS, I. M. Antonius Gnipho, a native of Gaul, instructed in Greek literature at Alexandrea, where he was educated, and in Latin literature at Rome. He first gave instruction in grammar at this latter city, in the paternal mansion of Julius Cæsar, who was then very young. Afterward he opened a school at his own residence, where he also professed rhetoric. Cicero attended his lectures when prætor. Gnipho left a work on the Latin tongue, in two volumes. cording to Suetonius (de Illustr. Gramm., 7), he never stipulated with his pupils for any fixed compensation, and hence obtained the more from their liberality. The same writer informs us that he did not live beyond his 50th year.-II. Marcus Antonius, a Roman orator, and the most truly illustrious of the Antonian family, flourished about the middle of the seventh century of Rome. After rising successively through the various offices of the commonwealth, he was made consul in the year of the city 655, and then governor of Cilicia, in quality of proconsul, where he performed so many valorous exploits that a public triumph was decreed to him. In order to improve his talent for eloquence, he became a scholar to the most able men in Rhodes and Athens. He was one of the greatest orators among the Romans; and, according to Cicero, who in the early part of his life was a contemporary, it was owing to him that Rome became a rival in elogiven us the character of his oratory, from which it appears that earnestness, acuteness, copiousness, and variety formed his distinguishing qualities; and that he excelled as much in action as in language. By his worth and abilities he had rendered himself dear to the most illustrious characters of Rome, when he fell a sacrifice in the midst of the bloody confusion excited

his too great consideration for his son is deemed one | Mannert supposes it to be the same with the ruined of the most striking; for although he was unremit- city of Uran Schar, mentioned by Niebuhr (vol. 2, p ting in his endeavours to reclaim him, they were ac- 390). companied by much erroneous indulgence, and especially by an early and ill-judged elevation to titles and honours, which uniformly operate injuriously upon a base and dissolute character. The best edition of the Meditations of Antoninus is that of Gataker, Cantab., 1652, 4to. (Gorton's Biogr. Dict., vol. 1, p. 88.) · III. Bassianus Caracalla. Vid. Caracalla. IV. Two works have come down to us, styled Itineraria Antonini, which may be compared to our modern books of routes. They give merely the distances between places, unaccompanied by any geographical remarks. One gives the routes by land, the other those by sea. They have been supposed by some to be the productions of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, while others assign them to a geographical writer named Antoninus, whose age is unknown. Both these opinions are evidently incorrect. It is more than probable, that the works in question were originally compiled in the cabinet of some one of the Roman emperors, perhaps that of Augustus, and were enlarged by various additions made during successive reigns, according as new routes or stations were established. Some critics, however, dissatisfied with this mode of solving the question, have sought for an ancient writer, occupied with pursuits of an analogous nature, to whom the authorship of these works might be assigned. They find two; and their suffrages, consequently, are divided between them. The first of these is Julius Hono-quence to Greece. The same great authority has rius, a contemporary of Julius Cæsar's, of whose productions we have a few leaves remaining, entitled, "Excerpta, quæ ad Cosmographiam pertinent." The other writer is a certain Ethicus, surnamed Ister, a Christian of the fourth century, to whom is attributed a work called " Cosmographia," which still exists. Mannert declares himself unconditionally in favour of Ethicus. (Introd. ad Tab. Peut., p. 8, seqq.) Wes-by Marius and Cinna. Taking refuge at the house of seling is undecided. The best edition of the Itinera- a friend from their relentless proscription, he was acries is that of Wesseling, Amst., 1735, 4to. (Schöll, cidentally discovered and betrayed to Marius, who imHist. Lat. Rom., vol. 3, p. 258, seqq.)- V. Liberalis, mediately sent an officer, with a band of soldiers, to a mythological writer, supposed to have lived in the bring him the orator's head. It was brought accordage of the Antonines, and to have been a freedman of ingly; and that sanguinary leader, after making it the one of them. He has left us a work entitled Mera-subject of his brutal ridicule, ordered it to be stuck popówcćwv Zvvaywyn, "A Collection of Metamor-upon a pole before the rostra, and, on the whole, treatphoses," in forty-one chapters; a production of con- ed it as Marc Antony, the worthless grandson of Ansiderable interest, from the fragments of ancient poets tonius, treated the head of Cicero. This event occontained in it. An idea of the nature of the work curred B.C. 87. He left two sons, Marcus, surnamed may perhaps be formed from the following titles of Creticus, and Caius, both of whom discredited their some of the chapters: Ctesylla, the Meleagrides, parentage. (Cic., de Orat., 1, 24.—Id. ibid., 2, 1.. Cragaleus, Lamia, the Emathides, and many others Gorton's Biogr. Dict., vol. 1, p. 90. Ernesti, Clav. drawn from the Heteraumena of Nicander; Hierax, Cic. Index Hist., s. v.)-III. Marcus, surnamed CretEgyptus, Anthus, Aedon, &c., from the Ornithogo-icus, elder son of the orator. He was guilty, while nia of Bous; Clinis from Simmias; Battus from the prætor, of great extortion in Sicily and other quarters, Eoca of Hesiod; Metiocha and Menippa from Corin-having received the same commission which Pompey na, &c. There exists but a single MS. of Antoninus Liberalis, which, after various migrations, has returned to the library of Heidelberg. It has been decried by Bast, in his Critical Epistle. The best edition of this writer is that of Verheyk, Lugd. Bat., 1774, 8vo. It does not, however, supply all the wants of the scholar; and some future editor, by ascending to the sources whence Antonius drew his materials, and taking for his model the labour bestowed by Heyne and Clavier on Apollodorus, may have it in his power to supply us with an editio optima. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 5, p. 44.)

ANTONINOPOLIS, a city of Mesopotamia, placed by D'Anville on the northern confines of the country, but more correctly, by Mannert, in the vicinity, and to the northeast, of Charræ and Edessa. (Mannert, Geogr., vol. 5, p. 304.) It is supposed to have been founded by Severus or Caracalla, and named after the emperor Antoninus. It was subsequently called Constantia, from Constantine, who enlarged and strengthened it.

afterward obtained, for importing corn and exterminating the pirates. He afterward invaded Crete, without any declaration of war, but was deservedly and shamefully defeated, whence he obtained, in derision, the surname of Creticus.-IV. Caius, brother of the preceding, and son of the orator. He bore arms under Sylla, in the war against Mithradates, and raised such disturbances in Greece, that for this and other malpractices he was afterward expelled from the senate by the censors. Obtaining, however, the consulship with Cicero, at a subsequent period, through the aid of Crassus and Cæsar, he was appointed to head the forces sent against Catiline. A pretended attack of the gout, however, caused him to confide the army of the republic, on the day of battle, to his lieutenant Petreius. He was afraid, it seems, of meeting Catiline, with whom he had at first been concerned in the conspiracy, lest the latter might taunt him with unpleasing reminiscences. He received, as proconsul, the province of Macedonia, by yielding which unto