but sometimes they were erected on the brow of a lofty promontary, difficult of access, and skilfully fortified. Such were the cities of the ancient Britons. As the Romans, in order to overawe the natives, fixed their camps on the scite of the native towns, or adjoining them, the Roman stations may generally be considered as indicative of some prior settlement of the Britons*. The fatal but necessary skill which the British tribes had acquired in those almost incessant wars which they had long waged against one another, enabled them, especially those who inhabited these northern districts, to make a long and glorious struggle, even against the Romans, so famed for their proficiency in the dreadful arts of destruction. The ancient Britons, in their youth, were carefully trained to the use of arms, nay, their very diversions and amusements were of a martial and manly cast, and contributed greatly to increase their agility, strength, and courage, which were considered as the chief accomplishments of a warrior. The infantry constituted the chief strength of the British armies. Their offensive weapons were swords of copper or brass, long, broad, and without points, which were attached to the right side, and suspended from a belt or chain thrown over the left shoulder. Round the body was a girdle sustaining a short dirk also of copper or brass. The battle-axe was likewise a formidable weapon in their hands. They were very dexterous in the use of short spears, which were pointed with brass, and had a pendulous bell of the like metal adjoining to the socket, which, being shook as they advanced, gave a harsh and dismal clangour, whereby the horses of an enemy were frightened and thrown into disordert. The cavalry consisted of small, hardy, spirited, and well trained horses: the horsemen were armed for fighting on foot, and were frequently accompanied by an equal number of the swiftest footmen, each footman holding by a horse's mane, and keeping pace with all the motions of cavalry. This corps, from the skill and rapidity of their manoeuvres, were of infinite servicet. The war chariots were of different kinds. The Covinus was armed with sharp hooks, and contained only the charioteer, all its execution depending on the force and rapidity with which it was driven through the enemy's ranks. The Rheda and Essedum were larger and stronger, and contained a few light-armed troops, who being expert in throwing the javelin on passing the enemy with speed, would make great slaughter. The singular and imposing appearance of their numerous war-chariots, driven with such incredible rapidity and dexterity, disconcerted even the Roman Cæsar de Bel. Gal. lib. v. ch. 7. Diod. Sic. lib. v. s. 8. Borlase's Antiq. Corn. p. 292. Whitaker's Hist. of Manchester. + Before the use of metals became general in the armories of the Britons, their hatchets were made of flint. They are frequently found in the graves of warriors, and are called celts, from the British word cellt, signifying a flint stone. Arrow-heads of flint have also been found in various parts of the kingdom, which are superstitiously called elf-shot, from a supposition that they are shot by elfs or fairies at cattle.-Owen's Dict. Stukeley's Itin. p. 54. Hutch. Cumb. p. 13. Pennant's Tour in Scot. c. 1. p. 101. This mode of fighting continued so long among the descendants of the Celtic race, that it was practised by the Highlanders in the Scots army during the seventeenth century.-See Memoirs of a Cavalier, p. 142. veterans, and Cæsar confesses that their attack was highly formidable. This skilful warrior describes the Britons as being so expert in the management of their chariots, that they would stop or turn them at full speed on the declivity of a hill,-sit, stand, or run upon the beam or yoke of their horse, and in one instant leap in or out as occasion required. The Britons fought in distinct bands or clans, each commanded by its proper chieftain, which disposition secured their attachment, and animated their ardour. The several clans which composed one state were commanded in chief by their sovereign; and when several states made war in conjunction, the king, most eminent for power or talents, was chosen generalissimo of the combined army. Their order of battle was generally with the war-chariots in front; their centre consisted of the several clans on foot, judiciously disposed, each in the shape of a wedge; and their flanks were composed of cavalry and light armed troops. The waggons, with their wives and children, were placed in the rear, which served both to inflame their courage and to strengthen their position. Their favourite disposition was on the ascent of a hill, where the corps of reserve might be seen by the enemy, and present to them a more formidable appearance. The onset was with hideous howlings and outery, mixed with the clangour of beating their weapons on the shield, and shaking their bell-spears. Accustomed to frequent warfare, amidst woodlands and morasses, with rival and contiguous tribes, the British leaders evinced a consummate skill in the arts of stratagem and surprize. Their tactics perplexed, if it did not baffle, the illustrious Cæsar, one of the most accomplished generals of Rome. From the most ancient times the Phoenicians, and afterwards the Greeks, sold to the Britons salt, earthenware, and brass trinkets, and received in exchange tin, lead, and the skins of beasts. Possessing good roads, it is probable that even this remote district had a share in this traffic; but, when the Romans had penetrated into the northern parts, the numerous garrisons which were left in Northumberland to secure obedi ence and promote civilization, must have rendered it the centre of a brisk trade. Gold, silver, lead, iron, corn, cattle, slaves, dogs, pearls, chalk, and baskets of wicker, were all in great request after the coming of the Romans, who bought in return nothing but articles of luxury and magnificence. Many of their articles of traffic were produced in this county. The veins of our lead-ore are both numerous and rich, and must have produced great quantities of silver*. Iron must have been wrought here, as is testified by an altar discovered at Benwell. Cattle, it is conceived, abounded in. our vallies and forests, and their hides must have formed a considerable article of commerce. Curious and beautiful stones are found in various parts of this district. Slaves seem to have been a valuable article of exportation, and were probably the captives of the neighbouring tribes taken in war, or criminals condemned to slavery for their crimes. British horses were much admired by the Romans, and great numbers were exported. Dogs also formed no inconsiderable article in the exports of this period: some of them were very large, strong, and fierce, and were used by the Gauls, and some other nations, in war; others were the same kind as our present mastiffs or bull-dogs, and were purchased by the Romans for baiting bulls in the amphitheatres; but the most valued kind were designed for hunting, and were unequalled, both in swiftness and the exquisiteness of their scent. They must have been numerous among the hunting and pastoral people of this country*. From the testimony of Cæsar, it appears that the Britons in his time had a circulating monied medium of traffic, though his words admit of a doubt as to whether their brass money was minted, or mere bullion valued by the weight. Plot and Borlase argue, that the Britons possessed coins before the Roman invasion. However, it is certain that British coins were struck during the years intervening between the first invasion under Cæsar, and the second by direction of Claudius. The genuine coins of the Britons are usually of gold, silver, and brasst. Those that are merely stamped with the figures of animals, with unintelligible devices, were probably of the earliest Celtic mintage. Perforated iron plates have been discovered in Cornwall, and are supposed to be the iron money used before the art of coining was introduced. A hole in the centre was for the purpose of stringing them, for the convenience of the trader. The first vessels used by the ancient Britons consisted of canoes, which were formed out of a single tree hollowed with fire, in the manner of the North American Indians. Canoes of this description have been discovered in lakes and in marshes both in England and in Scotland. A large vessel of this kind was found in 1726, near the influx of the Carron into the Forth. It was thirty-six feet long, four feet broad in the middle, four feet four inches deep, four inches thick in the sides, all of one piece of solid oak, sharp at the stem, and square at the stern. It was finely polished both inside and outside; the wood was of an extraordinary hardness, and not one knot in the whole. This curious piece of antiquity was found fifteen feet under the ground : a part of it was first perceived by the river washing away the bank. These canoes were succeeded by the Currachs, which were accommodated with keels and masts of the lightest wood, the sides were made of osiers closely interwoven, and covered with leather. In these slender boats the adventurous natives launched into the perilous ocean, and even crossed the narrow seas to Gaul and Ireland. Boats of a similar construction are still used on the rivers of Wales‡. But it is probable that the Britons * These celebrated dogs are thus described in a passage of Oppian, translated out of the Greek into Latin by Bodinus: Est etiam catuli species indagine clara, Corpus huic breve, magnifico sed corpore digna; There is a kind of dogs of mighty fame + Prints of at least 40 specimens of British coins may be seen in Speed's Historic, Camden's Britannia, Pegge's Coins of Cunobelin, and Whitaker's History of Manchester, &c. Mr Whitaker says, the word Tasc occurring, with some variations, on many of those coins, signifies leader or king, as, indeed, the variations of the word do in the Gaelic language to this day. Beauties of Wales, vol. xvii. p. 8, &c. 1 had vessels of a larger size, better constructed, and of more solid materials; for when the Veneti, who inhabited Brittany, were preparing to fight a decisive battle against the Romans by sea, they obtained auxiliaries from Britain, and the combined fleet consisted of two hundred and twenty ships. These war-vessels were entirely built of oak, strongly bolted, and their seams caulked with sea-weed. They were so substantially built, that their sides were impenetrable by the rostra, or beaks of the Roman gallies. They were calculated to take the ground, were high fore and aft, and were excellent sea-boats. Their sails were made of leather, and the shores being rocky, their seamen used iron chains instead of cables. They excelled the Romans in manoeuvring, and despised the fresh-water sailors' expedient of oars. Such were the first vessels of which we have any knowledge, built and navigated by the hardy sons of the north.* Great Britain, at the era of the Roman invasion, was divided into thirty-eight distinct kingdomst. These ancient kingdoms consisted of two, three, four, or more tribes or clanships, under one king, who was commonly the head of the principal clan of which the state was composed; while each chief of the other tribes still retained a great degree of authority in his own state. Different states enjoyed different degrees of political freedom. Dio Cassius attributes the success of the Romans to the enslaved state of the British people; but this can only refer to the southern states, which the Romans subdued with ease; for Dio Nicous expressly says, that in the northern nations the people had a great share in the supreme power. The prerogative of the ancient British kings was not unlimited, but rather circumscribed within very narrow bounds. The chief duties of the state, including the privileges of forming and administering laws, were vested in the priests. Indeed, religion constituted the basis of the ancient political system of the Britons, was a principal mover in all their transactions, and regulated all the affairs of social life. The influence of their theology survived all the arts and efforts of the Romans for its extinction; it modified and encumbered the simple rites of the gospel, and is still discoverable in the opinions and customs of the vulgar in Northumberland, as well as of the inhabitants of the other parts of the island. We shall therefore proceed to offer a brief sketch of the constitution and doctrines of the Druidic order. The origin of the celebrated order of Druids has been a fertile subject of fanciful conjecture. Some believe that the Druids în early ages accompanied the Celts from * Cæs. de Bel. Gal. lib. i. c. 12. & lib. 3. Strabo, lib. 4, p. 29. Pennant's Tour, vol. 3. p. 93. Hutch. Hist. of Cumb. vol. i. p. 12. Campbell's Lives of the Admirals, vol. i. p. 7. + Dr Henry conjectures, that the thirty-eight British nations at the first Roman invasion might embrace a population of 760,000 persons, allowing 20,000 to each number. Mr Anderson, in his History of Commerce, makes the number only 360,000. But even the highest of these calculations will certainly appear much too low, when we consider the advances the Britons had made in civilization; the fruitfulness of their country; and the strong expressions used by Cæsar and Tacitus, when describing the extent of the population in Britain. The adepts in etymology have differed greatly in tracing the derivation of the word Druid. Some deduce it from the old British word dru or derw, an oak. Others from the Celtic Derwyz, meaning one who has knowledge, &c. Druid. Others, with less probability, have derived this name from the Teutonic word Druthin, a servant of truth; or from the Saxon word Dry, a magician. the east; others that the doctrines of Druidism were introduced into England by the Phoenician traders. It is, however, highly probable, that the order of priests in Britain, as in all other ancient nations, rose out of a timorous and abject superstition. But the priests of Britain excelled those of the neighbouring nations, and, at a very remote period, digested and promulgated that remarkable and awful system of religion, termed Druidism. The Druids were divided into three different classes, the Bards, the Faids, and Druids, which last name was frequently given to the whole order, though it was sometimes appropriated to a particular class. The Bards were the heroic, historical, and genealogical poets of Britain. They did not belong to the priestly order, nor were they appointed to officiate in religious rites. This class survived the Roman sword, and their pagan rites and a regular succession is declared to have continued, though with many vicissitudes of number and popularity, from the age of Cæsar to the present day*. The Faids were highly venerated; they were the sacred musicians, the religious poets, and divine prophets of all the Celtic nations. They composed hymns in honour of their gods, which they sung to the music of their harps, at the sacred solemnities. Macpherson asserts, that some families still bear their name, both in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, and are probably descended from some of these once celebrated Faids. The Druids, properly so called, who composed the third class, were most numerous, and were variously distinguished by their ranks and dignity, the whole order being subject to one head, or Arch-Druid, who generally resided in the Isle of Anglesey. They appear to have lived in fraternities, like the churchmen of succeeding ages. There were also Druidesses, who assisted in the offices, and shared in the honours and emoluments of the priesthood. They were divided into three ranks or classes. The first class vowed perpetual virginity, and lived in sisterhood, sequestered from the world. The second class consisted of married devotees, who lived with the Druids, and conversed only occasionally with their husbands. Those of the third class performed the most servile offices about the temples, the sacrifices, and the persons of the Druidst. The Druids appear to have been dispersed throughout every corner of the island, and as no sacred rite could be performed without the assistance of a Druid, their num * From 1681 a remnant of the Bards has existed, little known but occasionally holding a congress for Glamorgan, the only provincial chair extant. About thirty years ago Mr E. Jones, author of the "Ancient Relics," revived the custom of the congress at Corwen, in Merionethshire; since that time it has been held yearly in many towns in North Wales. In 1792, a supreme congress was held at Primrose Hill. Mr. W Owen, and Mr. E. Williams, who have attained great ability in Cimbrie erudition, attended, and were assisted by Mr. E. Jones, and Mr. Samwell, whose poetical versions of the Welsh muses have much merit. But one of the regular Bards declares, that they know nothing at all of the ancient and genuine bardism.-See Owen's Essay, p. 62. Ancient Relics, p. 60. Williams' Poems, vol. 2. p. 161. See also Owen's Translations of the Elegies of Slywarch Hen. + Cæsar de Bel. lib. i. c. 13. Strab. lib. iv. Clem. Alex. Strom. p. 304. Burnet's Archeolog. Philos. p. 11. Rowland's Mona. Antiq. p. 83. |