The prevailing dialectic development of Christian doctrine must have been as unsatisfactory as it was injurious to deeper religious spirits, and therefore mysticism, in opposition to it, obtained a fuller and better developed form in the works of Pseudodionysius Areopagita,13 which appeared toward the end of the fifth century. These writings, banishing the divine essence, in the manner of the New Platonists, beyond all being and knowledge, and representing all things as proceeding in regular gradation out of it as their essence, proposed to teach how man, rightly apprehending his own position in the chain of being, might elevate himself through the next higher order to communion with still higher orders, and finally with God himself. At present they spread but gradually in the oriental church, till they penetrated in the middle ages into the west also, and so became the basis of all the later Christian mysticism.

There were now but few institutions for the advancement of theological learning any where; in the west none whatever.14 The monkish contempt displayed by Gregory the Great,15 bishop

13 Comp. § 110, note 7, and Engelhardt's works there quoted. Ritter's Gesch. d. christl. Philosophie, ii. 515. Die Christl. Mystik in ihrer Entwickelung u. in ihren Denkmalen von A. Helfferich (2 Th. Gotha. 1842) i. 129; ii. 1.

14 Cassiodor. de. Inst. div. lit. praef.: Cum studia saecularium literarum magno desiderio fervere cognoscerem (comp. Sartorius Versuch über die Regierung der Ostgothen während ihrer Herrschaft in Italien. Hamburg. 1811. S. 152, ss. Manso Gesch. des ostgoth. Reichs in Italien. Breslau. 1824. S. 132), ita ut multa pars hominum per ipsa se mundi prudentiam crederet adipisci; gravissimo sum (fateor) dolore permotus, quod scripturis divinis magistri publici deessent, cum mundani auctores celeberrima procul dubio traditione pollerent. Nisus sum ergo cum b. Agapito Papa urbis Romae, ut sicut apud Alexandriam multo tempore fuisse traditur institutum, nunc etiam in Nisibi civitate Syrorum ab Hebraeis sedulo fertur exponi (see below, § 122, note 5), collatis expensis in urbe Romana professos doctores scholae potius acciperent christianae, unde et anima susciperet aeternam salutem, et casto atque purissimo eloquio fidelium lingua comeretur. Sed cum per bella ferventia et turbulentia nimis in Italico regno certamina desiderium meum nullatenus valuisset impleri: quoniam non habet locum res pacis temporibus inquietis; ad hoc divina caritate probor esse compulsus, ut ad vicem magistri introductorios vobis libros istos, Domino praestante, conficerem, etc. What substitute was adopted may be seen from Conc. Vasense, iii. ann. 529, can. 1: Hoc enim placuit, ut omnes presbyteri, qui sunt in parochiis constituti, secundum consuetudinem, quam per totam Italiam satis salubriter teneri cognovimus, juniores lectores-secum in domo-recipiant: et eos-psalmos parare, divinis lectionibus insistere, et in lege domini erudire contendant: ut sibi dignos successores provideant. In Spain we find the first trace of a kind of episcopal seminaries, Conc. Tolet. ii. ann. 531, can. 1: De his, quos voluntas parentum a primis infantiae annis clericatus officio manciparit, hoc statuimus observandum, ut mox detonsi vel ministerio lectorum cum traditi fuerint, in domo Ecclesiae sub episcopali praesentia a praeposito sibi debeant erudiri.

15 Pauli Warnefridi (about 775) de Vita S. Gregor. Papae, libb. iv. (prim. ed. Jo. Mabillon in the Annales Ord. S. Bened. saec. i. p. 385) and Johannis Eccl. Rom. Diaconi (about 875) Vita S. Greg. libb. iv. both in tome iv. of the Benedictine edition of Gregory's works.

of Rome (from 590-604), for the liberal sciences,16 contributed much to the daily increasing neglect of them; but the later traditions of his hostility to all literature, are not to be fully believed.17

New fields were now opened to ecclesiastical writers in colecting and arranging the saints' traditions, in which Gregory, archbishop of Tours (573-595),18 and Gregory the Great,19 led the way; and in the cultivation of ecclesiastical law.20 In Comp. the life composed by the Benedictines, and given in that volume. G. F. Wiggers de Gregorio M. ejusque placitis anthropologicis, comm. ii. Rostoch. 1838. 4. p. 11.—Gregory's most important works (see Bähr's christl. röm. Theologie, S. 442. Wiggers, p. 35): Expositionis in Job. s. Moralium libb. xxxv.-Liber pastoralis curae ad Joh. Ravennae Episc. (by Anastasius Sinaita, patriarch of Antioch, immediately translated into Greek).— Dialogorum de vita et miraculis Patrum Ital. et de aeternitate animarum, libb. iv. (translated into Greek by Pope Zacharias, about 744).—Epistolarum libb. xiv. (according to the older arrangement, libb. xii.).—Liber Sacramentorum de circulo anni s. Sacramentarium. -Antiphonarius s. gradualis liber.-Opp. ed. Petr. Gussanvillaeus. voll. iii. Paris. 1675. fol. studio et labore Monachorum Ord. S. Bened. e Congr S. Mauri, voll. iv. Paris. 1705. fol. locupletata a J. B. Galliccioli. Venet. 1768, ss. voll. xvii. 4. Concerning the modern abbreviators of Gregory see Oudinus de Scriptt. eccl. ant. i. 1544.

16 For example, in the epistola ad Leandrum prefixed to his Exposit. libri Jobi: Non barbarismi confusionem devito, situs motusque praepositionum casusque servare contemno, quia indignum vehementer existimo, ut verba caelestis oraculi restringam sub regulis Donati.-Lib. xi. Epist. 54, ad Desiderium, Episc. Viennensem: Pervenit ad nos, quod sine verecundia memorare non possumus, Fraternitatem tuam grammaticam quibusdam exponere. Quam rem ita moleste suscepimus, ac sumus vehementius aspernati, ut ea, quae prius dicta fuerant, in gemitus et tristitiam verteremus: quia in uno se ore cum Jovis laudibus Christi laudes non capiunt, etc.

17 Joannes Sarisburiensis (about 1172) in his Policraticus, lib. ii. c. 26: Doctor sanctus ille Gregorius-non modo Mathesin jussit ab aula, sed, ut traditur a majoribus, incendio dedit probatae lectionis scripta Palatinus quaecumque recepit Apollo. Lib. viii. c. 19, fertur b. Gregorius bibliothecam combussisse gentilem, quo divinae paginae gratior esset locus, et major auctoritas, et diligentia studiosior. Barthol. Platina (about 1480) de Vitis Pontificum, in Vita Gregorii: Neque est cur patiamur, Gregorium hac in re a quibusdam -carpi, quod suo mandato veterum aedificia sint dirupta, ne peregrini et advenae-posthabitis locis sacris, arcus triumphales et monumenta veterum cum admiratione inspicerent. Platina tries to defend him from the charge. Id. in Vita Sabiniani: Paululum etiam abfuit, quin libri ejus (Gregorii) comburerentur, adeo in Gregorium ira et invidia exarserat homo malevolus. Sunt qui scribant, Sabinianum instigantibus quibusdam Romanis hoc in Gregorium molitum esse, quod veterum statuas tota urbe, dum viveret, et obtruncaverit et disjecerit, quod quidem ita vero dissonum est, ut illud, quod de abolendis aedificiis majorum in vita ejus diximus. Against the credibility of these stories see P. Bayle Dictionnaire hist. et crit. Art. Gregoire, not. H. and M. Jo. Barbeyrac de la Morale des Pères, c. 17 § 16. What Brucker, Hist. Phil. iii. 560, says in their defense is of no importance.

18 De Gloria Martyrum libb. ii., de Gloria Confessorum lib. i., de Virtutibus et Miraculis S. Martini libb. iv., de Vitis Patrum lib. i., in his Opp. ed. Theod. Ruinart. Paris. 1699. fol (comp. Div. I. § 53, note 46). Dr. C. G. Kries de Greg. Tur. Episc. vita et scriptis. Vratisl. 19 Dialogorum libb. iv.; see above, note 15.

1839. 8.

20 A. Gallandii de Vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge (Dissertations of Coustant, de Marca, the Ballerini, Berard, Quesnell, etc.). Venetiis. 1778. fol. recus. Mogunt. 1790, t. ii. 4. (L. T. Spittler's) Geschichte des kanonischen Rechts bis auf die Zeiten des falschen Isidorus. Halle. 1778. 8.

the Greek Church,21 soon after the council of Chalcedon, appeared the so-called apostolic canons, 22 claiming to form the unalterable basis of all ecclesiastical arrangements. About the same time the Christians began to put together the decrees of councils in the order of the subjects, instead of in the old chronological way. The oldest collection of this kind now extant is that of Johannes Scholasticus of Antioch (afterward patriarch of Constantinople, † 578),23 which was in great repute for several centuries. Justinian's code was also so rich a source for ecclesiastical matters, that particular collections of church laws were made soon after his time, out of his Institutes.2 Those of John Scholasticus were at a later period adapted to Justinian's by a new arrangement of the collection of canons,2 and thus arose the first Nomocanon.2 26

24

25

In the Latin Church there was not even a tolerably complete chronological collection of the canons till that made after the council of Chalcedon, since known as the prisca translatio.7 A still fuller collection was afterward made by Dionysius Exiguus (about 500) 28 in a better translation, to which was added, in a second part, a collection of the papal decretals. In Spain there had been a collection of canons, between 633 and 636, on the model of that by Dionysius (the Greek ones in a peculiar version), and of papal decretals for the use of the Spanish

21 Jos. Sim. Assemani Bibliotheca juris orientalis, civilis et canonici. Romae. 1762–66. t. v. 4. (incomplete, contains merely the Codex canonum eccl. Graecae and the Codex juris civilis eccl. Graecae). F. A. Biener de collectionibus canonum Eccl. Graecae schediasma litterarium. Berol. 1827. 8.

22 See Div. I. § 67, note 5.

23 Published in Guil. Voëlli et H. Justelli Bibliotheca juris canonici veteris (t. ii. Paris. 1661. fol.) ii. 449.

24 The Collectio lxxxvii. capitulorum, collected by Johannes Scholasticus from the Novellae; the Coll. xxv. capitt. from the Codex and Novellae (published in G. E. Heimbach. Anecdota, t. ii. Lips. 1840. 4); and that erroneously published under the name of Theod. Balsamon in Voëlli et Justelli Bibl. juris ii. 1223 collectio constitt. ecclesiasticarum, which was compiled at the time of Heraclius, perhaps also of Justin II. from the Pandects, Codex, and Novellae. Comp. F. A. Biener's Gesch. d. Novellen Justinians. Berlin. 1824 8. S. 166.

25 In this form it is found in Voëlli et Justelli Bibl. ii. 603.

26 Though this name is much more modern. See Biener's Gesch. d. Novellen, S. 194 Heimbach Anecd. t. ii. Prolegom. p. lv.

27 Best edition that of the Ballerini Opp. Leonis, iii. 473, from which Mansi, vi. 1105 Concerning it comp. Ballerini de Ant. collectionibus canonum (before t. iii. Opp. Leonis and in Gallandii Sylloge), P. ii. cap. 2, § 3. Spittler, S. 129.

28 Published in Voëlli et Justelli Biblioth. i. 101. Ballerini, 1. c. P. iii. cap. 1-3. Spitt lor, S. 134. According to Drey, über die Constit. u. Kanones d. Apostel, p. 203, even before the end of the fifth century.

Church,29 which was afterward called the collection of Isidore, 3 because it was erroneously ascribed to the most celebrated man of that time, Isidore, archbishop of Seville († 636). The laws respecting penance had gradually become so numerous as to require a separate work. Johannes Jejunator (¿ vηoεvtýs), patriarch of Constantinople (from 585-593), wrote the ȧkolovoía καὶ τάξις ἐπὶ ἐξομολογουμένων, the first libellus poenitentialis (rules of penance).

31

THIRD CHAPTER.

HISTORY OF THE HIERARCHY.

§ 115.

PRIVILEGES OF THE CLERGY.

The clergy, and particularly the bishops, received new privileges from Justinian. He intrusted the latter with civil jurisdiction over the monks and nuns, as well as over the clergy.1 Episcopal oversight of morals, and particularly the duty of providing for all the unfortunate (§ 91, notes 8-10), had been established till the present time only on the foundation of ecclesiastical laws: but Justinian now gave them a more

29 Published by Ant. Gonzalez in 2 Div. Collectio canonum Eccl. Hispanae. Matriti. 1808, and Epistolae decretales ac rescripta Rom. Pontiff. Matriti. 1821. fol.; comp. Ballerini, 1. c. P. ii. cap. ii. § 2; P. iii. c. 4. M. E. Regenbrecht de Cann. Apostolorum et codice Eccl. Hispaniae diss. Vratisl. 1828. 8. Eichhorn on the Spanish collection of the sources of ecclesiastical jurisprudence, in the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin for the year 1834. (Berlin. 1836. 4to.) Historical and Philosophical Class, p. 89. 30 According to Eichhorn, p. 113, since Pseudo-Isidore.

31 Afterward variously interpolated; published in J. Morini Comm. Hist. de disciplina in administratione Sacramenti Poenitentiae. Paris. 1651. fol. in append.

1 Novellae Justin. 79 et 83 (both A.D. 539). More particular notices are given in Nov. 123, cap. 21: Si quis autem litigantium intra x. dies contradicat iis, quae judicata sunt, tunc locorum judex causam examinet.-Si judicis sententia contraria fuerit iis, quae a Deo amabili Episcopo judicata sunt: tunc locum habere appellationem contra sententiam judicis. Si vero crimen fuerit, quod adversus quamlibet memoratarum reverendissimarum personarum inferatur,-judex ultionem ei inferat legibus congruentem. Further, in a criminal accusation: Si Episcopus distulerit judicare, licentiam habeat actor civilem judicem adire. Cf. B. Schilling de Origine jurisdictionis eccles. in causis civilibus. Lips. 1825. 4. p. 41, s£.

5

6

.3

general basis, by founding them on the civil law also.2 He made it the duty of the bishops, and gave them the necessary civil qualifications, to undertake the care of prisoners, minors, insane persons, foundlings, stolen children, and women; and invested them with the power of upholding good morals1 and impartial administration of justice. It is true that he established a mutual inspection of the bishops and of the civil magistrates; but he gave in this respect to the latter considerably smaller privileges than to the former. For example, he gave the bishops a legal influence over the choice of magistrates, and security against general oppression on their part; allowed them to interfere in case of refusal of justice ; and, in special instances, even constituted them judges of those official personages. In like manner, he conveyed to them the right of concurrence in the choice of city officials,1o and a joint oversight of the administration of city funds, and the maintenance of public establishments.11 Thus the bishops became important personages even in civil life; and were farther honored by Justinian, in freedom from parental authority,12 from the necessity of appearing as witnesses, and from taking oaths.13

8

9

2 C. W. de Rhoer de Effectu relig. christ. in jurisprudentiam rom. fasc. 1. Groningae. 1776. 8. p. 94. C. Riffel's geschichtl. Darstellung des Verhältnisses zwischen Kirche und Staat. (Mainz. 1836) i. 622.

3 Cod. Justin. lib. i. tit. iv. de episcopali audientia (i. e. judicio) 1. 22.—1. 30.—1. 27. 1. 28. -1. 24.-1. 33.

4 In addition to their former powers against pimps (Cod. Th. xv. viii. 2) and sorcerers (Cod. Th. ix. xvi. 12), Justinian gave them also the privilege of interfering against gaming (Cod. Just. i. iv. 25).

5 The Praesides provinciarum were obliged to see to it that bishops observed ecclesiastical laws relating to ecclesiastical things (Cod. Just. i. iii. 44, § 3, Nov. cxxxiii. c. 6), particularly those relating to the unalienableness of church possessions (Nov. vii. in epil.) and the regular holding of synods (Nov. cxxxvii. c. 6). They could only, however, put the bishops in mind of their duty, and then notify the emperor.

6 Nov. cxlix. c. 1.

7. Cod. Just. i. iv. 26, Nov. cxxxiv. c. 3.

8 Nov. lxxxvi. c. 1.

9 Nov. lxxxvi. c. 4 (A.D. 539): Quodsi contingat aliquem ex subditis nostris ab ipso clarissimo provinciae praeside injuria affici, jubemus eum sanctissimum illius urbis Episcopum adire, ut ille inter cl. praesidem, eumve, qui se ab eo injuria affectum putat, judicet. If the president (of a province) were condemned, and gave no satisfaction, the matter was referred to the emperor, and in case he found the episcopal sentence just, the president was condemned to death. According to Nov. viii. c. 9, cxxviii. c. 23, every magistrate, after laying down his office, was obliged to remain fifty days in the province to satisfy any claims that might be made against him. If he removed sooner, every one injured might complain to the bishop.

10 Cod. Just. i. iv. 17, Nov. cxxviii. 16.

12 Novell. lxxxi.

11 Cod. Just. i. iv. 26.

13 Novell. cxxiii. c. 7.