the same time convents for both sexes were founded in Rome,3 notwithstanding the unfavorable opinion of the people; and the small islands near the coast, Gallinaria (Galinara), Gorgon 4 urbis moenia sub Ambrosio nutritore. Id. de Moribus eccles. cath. i. 33 : Vidi ego diversorium sanctorum Mediolani non paucorum hominum, quibus unus Presbyter praeerat, vir optimus et doctissimus. 3 Hieron. Ep. 96, ad Principiam de laudibus Marcellae, A.D. 412: Nulla eo tempore nobilium feminarum voverat Romae propositum Monachorum, nec audebat propter rei novitatem ignominiosum, ut tunc putabatur, et vile in populis nomen assumere. Haec (Marcella) ab Alexandrinis sacerdotibus, Papaque Athanasio et postea Petro, qui persecutionem Arianae haereseos declinantes, quasi ad tutissimum communionis suae portum Romam confugerant, vitam beati Antonii adhuc tunc viventis, monasteriorumque in Thebaide Pachumii et virginum ac viduarum didicit disciplinam.-Hanc multos post annos imitata est Sophronia, et aliae.-Hujus amicitiis fruita est Paula venerabilis. In hujus cubiculo nutrita Eustochium, virginitatis decus, ut facilis aestimatio sit, qualis magistra, ubi tales discipulae.-Audivimus te illius adhaesisse consortio, et nunquam ab illa-recessisse.-Suburbanus ager vobis pro Monasterio fuit, et rus electum pro solitudine. Multoque ita vixistis tempore, ut, ex imitatione vestri, conversatione multarum gauderemus Romam factam Jerosolymam. Crebra virginum monasteria, Monachorum innumerabilis multitudo, ut pro frequentia servientium Deo, quod prius ignominiae fuerat, esset postea gloriae. Epist. 54 ad Pammachium, A.D. 398: Pammachius meus-upxιOTPATNYÒS Monachorum. Augustin. de Moribus eccl. cath. (388, written in Rome) i. 33: Romae plura (diversoria sanctorum) cognovi, in quibus singuli gravitate atque prudentia et divina scientia praepollentes caeteris secum habitantibus praesunt, christiana caritate, sanctitate et libertate viventibus. Ne ipsi quidem cuiquam onerosi sunt, sed Orientis more et Apostoli Pauli auctoritate, manibus suis se transigunt. Jejunia etiam prorsus incredibilia multos exercere didici, non quotidie semel sub noctem reficiendo corpus, quod est usquequaque usitatissimum, sed continuum triduum vel amplius saepissime sine cibo et potu ducere neque hoc in viris tantum, sed etiam in foeminis, quibus item, multis viduis et virginibus simul habitantibus, et lana ac tela victum quaeritantibus, praesunt singulae gravissimae probatissimaeque, non tantum in instituendis componendisque moribus, sed etiam instituendis mentibus peritae atque paratae. These fasts which were manifestly prejudicial to the health, stirred up the people. At the burying of Blaesilla, a daughter of Paula, a young nun, supposed to have been killed by fasting, A.D. 384, the people cried out (Hieronymi Ep. 22, al. 25, ad Paulam): Quousque genus detestabile monachorum non urbe pellitur? non lapidibus obruitur? non praecipitatur in fluctus ? 4 Ambrosii Hexaëmeron, iii. c. 5: Quid enumerem insulas, quas velut monilia plerumque praetexit, id quibus ii, qui se abdicant intemperantiae saecularis illecebris, fido continentiae proposito, eligunt mundum latere, et vitae hujus declinare dubios anfractus? Hieronymus Ep. 84 (al. 30), de Morte Fabiolae about 400: Angusta misericordiae ejus Roma fuit. Peragrabat ergo insulas et totum Etruscum mare, Volscorumque provinciam et reconditos curvorum littorum sinus, in quibus monachorum consistunt chori, vel proprio corpore, vel transmissa per viros sanctos ac fideles munificentia circumibat. Comp. the itinerarium of the heathen Rutilii Numatiani (A.D. 417), i. 439, ss.: Processu pelagi jam se Capraria tollit, Ipsi se monachos Grajo cognomine dicunt, etc. and respecting Gorgon, ibid. v. 517, ss.: Aversor scopulos, damni monumenta recentis; Noster enim nuper, juvenis majoribus amplis, 10 7 (Gorgona), Capraria (Capraia), Palmaria (Palmarola), on the west coast of Italy and the islands on the Dalmatian coast," became important seats of monastic establishments. Martin® first established in Gaul a monastery at Poictiers; and afterward, when he became bishop of Turonum (375–400), another in that city." About 400, Honoratus founded the celebrated monastery on the island Lerins (now St. Honorat). Others rose on the island Lero1o (St. Marguerite), and the Stoechades11 on the south coast of Gaul. John Cassian, 12 who was educated among the Egyptian monks, founded two cloisters in Massilia (after 410). He died after 432. He died after 432. In Africa, notwithstanding Augustine's most zealous encomiums on monachism, it found acceptance almost entirely with the lower classes alone; 13 and the hatred of it was kept up there longer than in any other place.14 Et turpem latebram credulus exsul amat. 5 Hieron. Ep. 92, ad Julianum: Exstruis monasteria, et multus a te per insulas Dalmatiae Sanctorum numerus sustentatur. • Severi Sulpicii b. Martini vita. Epistolae iii. de Martino Dialogi. iii. de virtutibus monach. orientalium et b. Martini. 7 The monasterium Locociagense, Gregor. Turon. de miraculis S. Martini, iv. 30. 8 Majus monasterium (Marmoutier). 9 A. F. Silfverberg Hist. Monasterii Lerinensis usque ad ann. 731 enarrata. Havn. 1834. 8. The life of Honoratus, who became bishop of Arles in 426, by his disciple and successor Hilary, may be seen in Acta SS. ad d. 16. Jan. 10 Plinius Nat. Hist. iii. 5, calls the two islands Lerina and Lero, Strabo, iv. 1, 10, ǹ IIλavaoía kai Ahpwv. In later authors (Sidonii Carm. xvi. 104, Ennodius in vita Epiphanii) they are called Lerinus and Lerus. 11 To the founders of Monachism on these islands, viz., Jovinianus, Minervius, Leontius, and Theodoretus, Cassian dedicated his last seven Collations, as he had done the preceding seven to Honoratus and Eucherius. Cf. Praefatt. ad coll. xi. et xiii. 12 Respecting him see § 87, note 48. 13 Augustin. de Opere Monsch. c. 22: Nunc autem veniunt plerumque ad hanc professionem servitutis Dei'et ex conditione servili, vel etiam liberti, vel propter hoc a dominis liberati sive liberandi, et ex vita rusticana, et ex opificum exercitatione et plebejo labore. Neque enim apparet, utrum ex proposito servitutis Dei venerint, an vitam inopem et laboriosam fugientes vacui pasci atque vestiri voluerint, et insuper honorari ab eis, a quibus contemni conterique consueverant. 14 Salvianus Massiliensis (about 450) de Gubernat. Dei, viii. 4: Ita igitur et in monachis. -Afrorum probatur odium, quia inridebant scilicet, quia maledicebant, quia insectabantur, quia detestabantur, quia omnia in illos paene fecerunt, quae in salvatorem nostrum Judaeorum impietas. Intra Africae civitates, et maxime intra Carthaginis muros, palliatum et pallidum et recisis comarum fluentium jubis usque ad cutem tonsum videre tam infelix ille populus quam infidelis sine convitio atque execratione vix poterat. Et si quando aliquis Dei servus, aut de Aegyptiorum coenobiis, aut de sacris Hierusalem locis, aut de sanctis eremi venerandisque secretis ad urbem illam officio divini operis accessit, simul 2. The mode of life of the western monks was far less strict than that of the eastern; partly in consequence of the climate, and partly out of regard to the general feeling of the people.15 Another important point of difference was that the monks in the west soon abandoned mechanical labor.16 Here also there was not uniformity among them.17 Besides the monks and nuns who lived in convents, some wandered about,18 others led an ascetic life, occasionally at considerable expense, in the cities,19 others imitated the most striking asceticism of the orientals, frequently indeed only in appearance.20 ut populo apparuit, contumelias, sacrilegia et maledictiones excepit. Nec solum hoc, sed improbissimis flagitiosorum hominum cachinnis et detestantibus ridentium sibilis quasi taureis caedebatur. con 15 Sever. Sulp. Dial. i. 8: Edacitas in Graecis gula est, in Gallis natura. Cassian de Institut. coenob. i. 11: Nam neque caligis nos, neque colobiis, seu una tunica esse tentos hiemis permittit asperitas: et parvissimi cuculli velamen, vel melotes gestatio derisum potius, quam aedificationem ullam videntibus comparabit. 16 Sev. Sulp. Vita Mart. c. 10, of the monastery at Turonum: Ars ibi exceptis scriptoribus nulla habebatur: cui tamen operi minor aetas deputabatur: majores orationi vacabant. Yet Augustine de Opere monachorum (cf. Retractt. ii. c. 21), and Cassian de Instit. coenob. lib. x. recommended the monks to resume manual labor. 17 As in the east, so there were also in the west, tot propemodum typi ac regulae, quot cellae ac monasteria (Cassian. Institt. ii. c. 2). After Rufinus had translated the rules of St. Basil into Latin, they were observed in many monasteries. 18 Cassianus de Institutione coenobiorum, x. 23: In his regionibus nulla videmus monasteria tanta fratrum celebritate fundata (as in Egypt), quia nec operum suorum facultatibus fulciuntur, ut possint in eis jugiter perdurare: et si eis suppeditari quoquomodo valeat sufficientia victus alterius largitate, voluptas tamen otii et pervagatio cordis diutius eos in loco perseverare non patitur. Augustin. de Opere monach. c. 28: Callidissimus hostis tam multos hypocritas sub habitu monachorum usquequaque dispersit, circumeuntes provincias, nusquam missos, nusquam fixos, nusquam stantes, nusquam sedentes. Alii membra martyrum, si tamen martyrum, venditant, alii fimbrias et phylacteria sua magnificant: et omnes petunt, omnes exigunt aut sumtus lucrosae egestatis, aut simulatae pretium sane titatis. C. 31: Illi venalem circumferentes hypocrisim, timent ne vilior habeatur tonsa sanctitas quam comata, ut videlicet qui eos videt, antiquos illos quos legimus cogitet, Samuelem et caeteros qui non tondebantur. 19 Hieron. Ep. 95 (al. 4), ad Rusticum: Vidi ego quosdam, qui postquam renunciavere saeculo vestimentis duntaxat et vocis professione, non rebus, nihil de pristina conversatione mutarunt. Res familiaris magis aucta quam imminuta. Eadem ministeria servulorum, idem apparatus convivii. In vitro et patella fictili aurum comeditur, et inter turbas et examina ministrorum nomen sibi vindicant solitarii. 20 Hier. Ep. 18 (al. 22), ad Eustochium: Viros quoque fuge, quos videris catenatos, quibus foeminei contra Apostolum crines, hircorum barba, nigrum pallium, et nudi patientia frigoris pedes. Haec omnia argumenta sunt diaboli. Talem olim Antonium, talem nuper Sophronium Roma congemuit. Qui postquam nobilium introierunt domos, et deceperunt mulierculas oneratas peccatis, semper discentes, et nunquam ad scientiam veritatis pervenientes, tristitiam simulant, et quasi longa jejunia furtivis noctium cibis protrahunt.. § 97. RELATION OF THE MONKS TO THE CLERGY. The monks, as such, belonged to the laity, the convents forming separate churches whose presbyters were usually abbots1 standing in the same dependent relation to bishops as did the other churches with their people. As monachism was considered the perfection of Christianity, it was natural to choose clergymen from the monks. At first the stricter monks were much dissatisfied with this arrangement; but the aversion to it soon ceased, and even at the end of the fourth century, monastic life was considered to be the usual preparation, and monachism the nursery for the clergy, especially for bishops.3 2 The idea of transferring monachism, as much as possible, entirely to the clergy, was natural in these circumstances; and it was especially adopted in the west. The venerable Paphnutius had prevented the celibacy of the clergy from being enacted as an ecclesiastical law, in Nicaea; but now this regulation took 1 Alteserra Ascetic. ii. 2. iii. 8. vii. 2. 4 2 Cassian. de Instit. coenob. xi. 17: Quapropter haec est antiquitus patrum permanens nunc usque sententia, quam proferre sine mea confusione non potero, qui nec germanam vitare potui, nec episcopi evadere manus, omnimodo monachum fugere debere mulieres et episcopos. Neuter enim sinit eum, quem semel suae familiaritati devinxerit, vel quieti cellulae ulterius operam dare, vel divinae theoriae per sanctarum rerum intuitum purissimis oculis inhaerere. Hence monks were not seldom ordained against their will. Epiphan. Ep. ad Joh. Hierosol. Theodoret. Hist. relig. c. 13. Cf. Bingham, lib. iv. c. 7 (vol. ii. 189, ss.). 3 Hieron. Ep. 95, ad Rusticum: Ita age et vive in monasterio, ut clericus esse merearis. A law of Arcadius, A.D. 398 (Cod. Theod. xvi. ii. 32): Si quos forte Episcopi desse sibi Clericos arbitrantur, ex Monachorum numero rectius ordinabunt. Against the excess of this principle see Augustini Ep. 60: Ordini clericorum fit indignissima injuria, si desertores monasteriorum ad militiam clericatus eligantur:-nisi forte-vulgares de nobis jocabuntur dicentes: malus monachus bonus clericus est. Nimis dolendum, si ad tam ruinosam superbiam monachos surrigamus, et tam gravi contumelia clericos dignos putemus; -cum aliquando etiam bonus monachus vix bonum clericum faciat, si adsit ei sufficiens continentia, et tamen desit instructio necessaria, aut personae regularis integritas. 4 Socrates, i. 11 : Εδόκει τοῖς ἐπισκόποις νόμον νεαρὸν εἰς τὴν ἐκκλησίαν εἰσφέρειν, ὥστε τοὺς ἱερωμένους, λέγω δὲ ἐπισκόπους καὶ πρεσβυτέρους καὶ διακόνους, μὴ συγκαθεύ δειν ταῖς γαμεταῖς, ὡς ἔτι λαϊκοὶ ὄντες ἠγάγοντο (just as Can. Illiberit. 33, see Div. I. § 73, note 14, and therefore proposed probably by Hosius). Kaì éñeì ñeρì Toútov Bovλeúεσθαι προύκειτο, διαναστὰς ἐν μέσῳ τοῦ συλλόγου τῶν ἐπισκόπων ὁ Παφνούτιος, ἐβόα μακρὰ, μὴ βαρὺν ζυγὸν ἐπιθεῖναι τοῖς ἱερωμένοις ἀνδράσι, τίμιον εἶναι καὶ τὴν κοίτην καὶ αὐτὸν ἀμίαντον τὸν γάμον (Hebr. xiii. 4) λέγων, μὴ τῇ ὑπερβολῇ τῆς ἀκριβείας μᾶλλον τὴν ἐκκλησίαν προσβλάψωσιν· οὐ γὰρ πάντας δύνασθαι φέρειν τῆς ἀπαθείας τὴν ἄσκη 5 root in the west, first by the influence of Siricius, bishop of Rome (385), whom several councils soon followed. Eusebius, bishop of Vercellae († 371), and Augustine went still farther, and united with their clergy in adopting a strictly monastic life,“ σιν, οὐδὲ ἴσως φυλαχθήσεσθαι τὴν σωφροσύνην τῆς ἑκάστου γαμετῆς (σωφροσύνην δὲ ἐκάλει καὶ τῆς νομίμου γυναικὸς τὴν συνέλευσιν· ἀρκεῖσθαί τε τὸν φθάσαντα κλήρου τυχεῖν, μηκέτι ἐπὶ γάμον ἔρχεσθαι, κατὰ τὴν τῆς ἐκκλησίας ἀρχαίαν παράδοσιν· μήτε μὴν ἀποζεύγνυσθαι ταύτης, ἣν ἅπαξ ἤδη πρότερον λαϊκὸς ὢν ἠγάγετο. Καὶ ταῦτ' ἔλεγεν ἄπειρος ὢν γάμου, καὶ ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν γυναικός. Ἐκ παιδὸς γὰρ ἐν ἀσκητηρίῳ ἀνετέ θραπτο, καὶ ἐπὶ σωφροσύνῃ, εἰ καί τις ἄλλος, περιβόητος ὤν. Πείθεται πᾶς ὁ τῶν ἱερωσ μένων σύλλογος τοῖς Παφνουτίου λόγοις· διὸ καὶ τὴν περὶ τούτου ζήτησιν ἀπεσίγησαν, τῇ γνώμῃ τῶν βουλομένων ἀπέχεσθαι τῆς ὁμιλίας τῶν γαμετῶν καταλείψαντες. So also Sozom. i. 23. Gelasii Hist. Conc. Nic. ii. 32, and Historia tripartita, ii. 14.-The truth of it is doubted by Baronius, Bellarminus, Jo. Stilting (Act. SS. Sept. t. iii. p. 784, ss.). Ou the other side, Natalis Alexander Hist. eccl. saec. iv. diss. 19. Calixtus de Conj. cler. ed. Henke, p. 213, ss. 5 Epistola ad Himerium Episc. Tarraconensem, c. 7: Ii vero, qui illiciti privilegii excusatione nituntur, ut sibi asserant veteri hoc lege concessum: noverint se ab omni ecclesiastico honore, quo indigne usi sunt, apostolicae sedis auctoritate dejectos.-Quilibet episcopus presbyter atque diaconus, quod non optamus, deinceps fuerit talis inventus, jam nunc sibi omnem per nos indulgentiae aditum intelligat obseratum : quia ferro necesse est excidantur vulnera, quae fomentorum non senserint medicinam.-C. 9: Quicumque itaque se ecclesiae vovit obsequiis a sua infantia, ante pubertatis annos baptizari, et lectorum debet ministerio sociari. Qui ab accessu adolescentiae usque ad tricesimum aetatis annum, si probabiliter vixerit, una tantum et ea, quam virginem communi per sacerdotem benedictione perceperit, uxore contentus, acolythus et subdiaconus esse debebit; postque ad diaconii gradum, si se ipse primitus continentia praeeunte dignum probarit, aocedat. Unde si ultra quinque annos laudabiliter ministrarit, congrue presbyterium consequatur. Exinde, post decennium, episcopalem cathedram poterit adipisci, si tamen per haec tempora integritas vitae ac fidei ejus fuerit approbata.-C. 13: Monachos quoque, quos tamen morum gravitas et vitae ac fidei institutio sancta commendat, clericorum officiis aggregari et optamus et volumus. In the middle ages it was constantly admitted that this lex Ecclesiastica had been unknown to the primitive church. See Calixtus, 1. c. p. 3, ss. 304'. Many, however, believed it to be the meaning of Conc. Nicaeni, can. 3 (according to Dionys. Exig. translation: Interdixit per omnia magna synodus, non episcopo, non presbytero, non diacono, nec alicui omnino qui in clero est, licere subintroductam habere mulierem, nisi forte aut matrem, aut sororem, aut amitam, vel eas tantum personas, quae suspicionem effugiunt). Cf. Aelfrici canones, A.D. 970 (Wilkins. Concil. Magn. Brit. i. p. 250), c. 5: At the Nicene synod statuerunt omnes unanimi consensu, quod neque episcopus, neque presbyter, neque diaconus, nec ullus verus canonicus habeat in domo sua uxorem aliquam, nisi matrem, etc. Benedictus VIII. in Conc. Ticinensi, between 1014 and 1024 (ap. Mansi, xix. p. 344): Nicaeni patres non solum connubium, sed etiam cum mulieribus habitationem clericis omnibus interdicunt. So also Alfonsus a Castro († 1550), tit. Sacerdotium; Consuetudo, juxta quam matrimonio alligatus promovebatur ad sacerdotium, invaluit usque ad tempora Nicaeni concilii, in quo, ut fertur, generali decreto statutum est, ne aliquis uxorem habens consecretur sacerdos. Quod statutum cum ab aliquibus minime ut decebat observaretur, Siricius Papa de hac re illos acerbissime reprehendit. The Jesuits were the first, in the sixteenth century, who maintained, in opposition to the Protestants, that the celibacy of the priests originated in apostolic times. Calixtus, 1. c. p. 10, ss. 28, ss. J. Gf. Körner vom Cölibat der Geistlichen. Leipzig. 1784. 8. J. A. Theiner u. A. Theiner die Einführung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit b. d. christl. Geistlichen u. ihre Folgen. Altenburg. 1828. 2 Bde. 8. • Respecting Eusebius see Ambros. Ép. 63, ad Vercellenses, § 66: Haec enim primus |