lay the blame of all misfortune on the Christians, so since the west of Europe had been inundated by barbarous people, and even Italy had been several times devastated by such hordes, they were especially loud in declaring all these disasters to be punishments sent by the gods,16 and in predicting the speedy downfall of Christianity." Against these accusations the writings of Augustine 18 and the Spanish presbyter Oro

nius, Martyrius, and Alexander, were horribly murdered, A.D. 397, by the heathen during the Pagan festival of the Ambarvalia, and the church built by them destroyed. See Acta SS. (ad d. 29 Maj.) Maji, t. vii. p. 38. In Suffecte, in Africa, the Christians had demolished a statue of Hercules, and the heathen killed sixty of them for it (August. Ep. 268 ad Suffectanos). How at Calama, in Numidia, the heathen, during one of their festivals in the year 408, attacked the church there, and persecuted the Christians, may be seen in Augustin. Ep. 202 ad Nectarium.

15 When the Gothic king Rhadegaisus, 405, broke into Italy, the heathen said (Augustin. de civ. Dei, v. 23), quod ille diis amicis protegentibus et opitulantibus, quibus immolare quotidie ferebatur, vinci omnino non posset ab eis, qui talia diis Romanis sacra non facerent, nec fieri a quoquam permitterent. When Rome was subsequently besieged by Alaric, 409 (Sozom. ix. 6), ἀναγκαῖον ἐδόκει τοῖς ἑλληνίζουσι τῆς συγκλήτου, θύειν ἐν τῷ Καπιτωλίῳ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ναοῖς. And Zosimus, v. 41, asserts: Ὁ δὲ Ἰννοκέντιος τὴν τῆς πόλεως σωτηρίαν ἔμπροσθεν τῆς οἰκείας ποιησάμενος δόξης, λάθρα ἐφῆκεν avtoïs ñoiet̃v űñεp loaσiv. Comp. Beugnot, ii. 55. Zosimus, iv. 59: Tov Ovŋñoλikov θεσμοῦ λήξαντος, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων, ὅσα τῆς πατρίου παραδόσεως ἦν, ἐν ἀμελείᾳ κειμένων, ἡ Ῥωμαίων ἐπικράτεια κατὰ μέρος ἐλαττωθεῖσα, βαρβάρων οἰκητήριον γέγονε, ἢ καὶ τέλεον ἐκπεσοῦσα τῶν οἰκητόρων εἰς τοῦτο κατέστη σχήματος, ὥστε μηδὲ τοὺς τόπους, ἐν οἷς γεγόνασιν αἱ πόλεις, ἐπιγινώσκειν.

17 Many Christians believed that Christ should return 365 years after his first appearance, and the end of the world take place. Philastr. Haer. 106: Alia est haeresis de anno annunciato ambigens, quod ait Propheta Esaias: Annuntiare annum Dei acceptabilem et diem retributionis. Putant ergo quidam, quod ex quo venit Dominus usque ad consummationem saeculi non plus nec minus fieri annorum numerum, nisi ccclxv. usque ad Christi Domini iterum de caelo divinam praesentiam. To this Christian expectation the heathen gave another application. Augustin. de civ. Dei, xviii. 53: Excogitaverunt nescio quos versus Graecos tanquam consulenti cuidam divino oraculo effusos, ubi Christum quidem ab hujus tanquam sacrilegii crimine faciunt innocentem, Petrum autem maleficia fecisse subjungunt (namely, scelere magico puer, ut dicunt, anniculus occisus, et dilaniatus, et ritu nefario sepultus est), ut coleretur Christi nomen per ccclxv. annos, deinde completo memorato numero annorum sine mora sumeret finem. In the work de Promissionibus et Praedictionibus Dei lib. (inserted in Prosper's works, and written by an African, about 450), it is related, P. iii. prom. 38, how the bishop Aurelius at Carthage had converted the long-closed temple of Caelestis (the Phoenician Astarte) into a Christian church, which, however, soon after (420) had been destroyed for the purpose of obviating a heathen illusion. Cum a quodam pagano falsum vaticinium, velut ejusdem Caelestis proferretur, quo rursum et via et templa prisco sacrorum ritui redderentur-verus Deus-sub Constantio et Augusta Placidia, quorum nunc filius Valentinus pius et christianus imperat, Urso insistente tribuno, omnia illa ad solum usque perducta agrum reliquit in sepulturam scilicet mortuorum.

18 Augustin. Retractat. ii. 43: Interea Roma Gothorum irruptione agentium sub rege Alarico, utque impetu magnae cladis eversa est, cujus eversionem deorum falsorum multorumque cultores, quos usitato nomine Paganos vocamus, in christianam religionem referre conantes, solito acerbius et. amarius Deum verum blasphemare coeperunt. Unde ego exardescens zelo domus Dei, adversus eorum blasphemias vel errores libros de VOL. I.-19

sius 19 could do but little; but they must have become dumb of themselves when even the German conquerors became converts to Christianity, and persecuted heathenism.20 Hence even Val entinian III. (423-455), with all his powerlessness, could appear again as a decided opponent to paganism. Still it was kept up more or less privately amid the confusion of migrations.

21

22

civitate Dei scribere institui. Hoc autem de civitate Dei grande opus tandem xxii. libris est terminatum. Quorum quinque primi eos refellunt, qui res humanas ita prosperari volunt, ut ad hoc multorum deorum cultum, quos Pagani colere consueverunt, necessarium esse arbitrentur: et quia prohibetur, mala ista exoriri atque abundare contendunt. Sequentes autem quinque adversus eos loquuntur, qui fatentur haec mala nec defuisse unquam, nec defutura mortalibus, et ea nunc magna, nunc parva, locis, temporibus, personisque variari, sed deorum multorum cultum, quo eis sacrificatur, propter vitam post mortem futuram esse utilem disputant. His ergo decem libris duae istae vanae opiniones christianae religioni adversariae refelluntur. Sed ne quisquam nos aliena tantum redarguisse, non autem nostra asseruisse reprehenderet, id agit pars altera operis hujus, quae libris xii. continetur. Duodecim ergo librorum sequentium primi quatuor continent exortum duarum civitatum, quarum est una Dei, altera hujus mundi. Secundi quatuor excursum earum sive procursum. Tertii vero, qui et postremi, debitos fines. Augustini de civitate Dei lib. xxii. cum commentario Jo. Lud. Vivis. Basil. 1522. fol.; cum. comm. Leon. Coquaei. Paris. 1636. fol.; cum comm. Vivis et Coquaei sumt. Zach. Hertelii. Hamburg. 1661. 2 tom. 4. Jo. van Goens Disp. hist. theol. de Aurel. Augustino Apologeta secundum libros de civitate Dei. Amstelod. 1838. 8.

19 Pauli Orosii adversus Paganos historiarum libb. vii. rec et illustr. Sigeb. Havercampus. Lugd. Bat. 1738. 4. Th. de Moerner de Orosii vita ejusque hist. libris. Berol. 1844. 8. 20 So the Goths under Alaric at the sacking of Rome, 410 (Augustin. de civ. Dei, v. 23), qui-ad loca sancta confugientes, christianae religionis reverentia, tuerentur, ipsisque daemonibus atque impiorum sacrificiorum ritibus-sic adversarentur pro nomine christiano, ut longe atrocius bellum cum eis quam cum hominibus gerere viderentur. Cf. i. 1.

21 Cod. Theod. xvi. 5, 63, a.D. 425: Omnes haereses omnesque perfidias, omnia schismata superstitionesque gentilium, omnes catholicae legis inimicos insectamur errores. It is decreed, sacrilegae superstitionis auctores, participes, conscios proscriptione plectendos. 22 So in upper Italy Maximus Ep. Taurinensis (about 440, ed. Rom. 1784. fol.) Serm. 98, p. 655: Ante dies commonueram caritatem vestram, fratres, ut-idolorum omnem pollutionem de vestris possessionibus auferretis, et erueretis ex agris universum gentilium errorem. Nec se aliquis excusatum putet, dicens, non jussi fieri, non mandavi-tacendo enim, et non arguendo consensum praebuit immolanti.-Tu igitur, frater, cum tuum sacrificare rusticum cernis, nec prohibes immolare, peccas. Cum cellam ingressus fueris, reperies in ea pallentes cespites, mortuosque carbones. Et si ad agrum processeris, cernis aras ligneas et simulacra lapidea. Cum maturius vigilaveris, et videris saucium vino rusticum, scire debes, quoniam, sicut dicunt, aut dianaticus (a worshiper of Diana), aut aruspex est:-talis enim sacerdos parat se vino ad plagas deae suae, ut dum est ebrius poenam suam ipse non sentiat. Nam ut paulisper describamus habitum vatis hujusce: est ei adulterinis criniculis hirsutum caput, nuda habens pectora, pallio crura semicincta, et more gladiatorum-ferrum gestat in manibus, nisi quod gladiatore pejor est, quia ille adversus alterum dimicare cogitur, iste contra se pugnare compellitur. So also Maximus contra Paganos (Opp. p. 721) is directed against the still existing idolatry. Comp. his Sermo 77, p. 610: Principes quidem tam boni christiani leges pro religione promulgant, sed eas executores non exerunt competenter. In Gaul, Conc. Arelat. ii. ann. 443, c. 23: Si in alicujus Episcopi territorio infideles aut faculas accendunt, aut arbores, fontes vel saxa venerantur, si hoc eruere neglexerit, sacrilegii reum se esse cognoscat. Here persecutions of the Christians must still have taken place once and again, for chapter 10 contains penitence-decisions de his qui in persecutione praevaricati sunt, si voluntarie

Particular heathen customs, which had become of value to the people or had gained their superstitious confidence, were maintained, notwithstanding all the conversions to Christianity.2

23

fidem negaverint; and chapter 11 respecting those, qui dolore victi et pondere persecutionis negare vel sacrificare compulsi sunt. In Africa: de Promiss. et Praedict. Dei libb. P. iii. prom. 38 (comp. above, note 17): Novi quoque ipse, in quadam parte Mauretaniae provinciae de spelaeis et cavernis ita antiqua producta simulacra, quae fuerant absconsa ut omnis illa cum clericis in sacrilegio perjurii civitas teneretur. In Corsica Paganism continued predominant, and sacrifices were publicly offered. A female Christian named Julia was crucified by the exasperated heathens (between 440-445), because she would not take part in a sacrifice. See Acta SS. Maj. viii. 167 (ad 22 Maj.).

23 In Rome, too, such practices as had a certain political importance were kept up. See Salvianus (presbyter in Marseilles, about 440. Salv. et Vincent. Lir. Opp. ed. Baluzius. Paris. 1684. 8. Bremae. 1688. 4) de gubernatione Dei lib. vi. ed. Brem. p. 106: Numquid, non Consulibus et pulli adhuc gentilium sacrilegorum more pascuntur, et volantis pennae auguria quaeruntur, ac paene omnia fiunt, quae etiam illi quondam pagani veteres frivola atque irridenda duxerunt?-haec propter Consules tantum fiunt. The fights with wild beasts were continued, Salvianus, vi. p. 105: Nihil ferme vel criminum, vel flagitiorum est, quod in spectaculis non sit; ubi summum deliciarum genus est mori homines, aut, quod est morte gravius acerbisque, lacerari, expleri ferarum alvos humanis carnibus, comedi homines cum circumstantium laetitia, conspicientium voluptate.-Atque ut hoc fiat, orbis impendium est; magna enim cura id agitur et elaboratur.-Sed haec, inquis, non semper fiunt. Certum est, et praeclara erroris est excusatio, quia non semper fiunt! P. 113: Si quando evenerit, ut eodem die et festivitas ecclesiastica et ludi publici agantur, quaero ab omnium conscientia, quis locus majores christianorum virorum copias habeat, cavea ludi publici, an atrium Dei?-Non solum ad Ecclesiam non veniunt qui Christianos se esse dicunt; sed si qui inscii forte venerint, dum in ipsa Ecclesia sunt, si ludos agi audiunt, Ecclesiam derelinquunt.-Maximus Taurin. Hom. c. p. 334: Ante dies plerosque -circa vesperum tanta vociferatio populi extitit, ut irreligiositas ejus penetraret ad caelum. Quod cum requirerem, quid sibi clamor hic velit; dixerunt mihi, quod laboranti lunae vestra vociferatio subveniret, et defectum ejus suis clamoribus adjuvaret. It was believed (Hom. cì. p. 337), lunam de caelo magorum carminibus posse deduci. The heathen festival of the Kalendae Januariae was universally observed. Ambrose, Augustine, Leo the Great, and Peter Chrysologus, bishop of Ravenna, express themselves with zeal against it; also Maximus Hom. ciii. p. 343: Quis sapiens, qui dominici Natalis sacramentum colit, non ebrietatem condemnet Saturnalium, non declinet lasciviam Kalendarum ?-Sunt plerique, qui trahentes consuetudinem de veteri superstitione vanitatis, Kalendarum diem pro summa festivitate procurent.-Nam ita lasciviunt, ita vino et epulis satiantur, ut qui toto anno castus et temperans fuerit, illa die sit temulentus atque pollutus.-Illud autem quale est, quod surgentes mature ad publicum cum munusculo, h. e., cum strenis unusquisque procedit, et salutaturus amicos, salutat praemio antequam osculo? caet. Most striking is that which Salvianus de gub. Dei viii. p. 165, writes of Africa: Quis non eorum, qui Christiani'appellabantur, Caelestem illam (see note 17) aut post Christum adoravit, aut, quod est pejus multo, ante quam Christum? Quis non daemoniacorum sacrificiorum nidore plenus, divinae domus limen introiit, et cum foetore ipsorum daemonum Christi altare conscendit?-Ecce quae Afrorum, et maxime nobilissimorum, fides, quae religio, quae christianitas fuit!—At, inquis, non omnes ista faciebant, sed potentissimi quique, ac sublimissimi. Adquiescamus hoc ita esse, caet.

SECOND CHAPTER.

HISTORY OF THEOLOGY.

J. Chr. F. Wundemann Gesch. d. christl. Glaubenslehren vom Zeitalter des Athanasius bis auf Gregor. d. G. 2 Theile. Leipz. 1798, 99. 8. Munscher's Dogmengeschichte. Bd. 3, 4.

§ 80.

INTRODUCTION.

The universally received articles of the Christian faith in the beginning of this period were still so simple as to admit of ince to reason for free inquiry. How manifold were the theological views which arose, may be seen particularly from a comparison of the different schools, the speculative Origenist, the traditional, and the historico-exegetical, which now first began. And a still greater contrast of systems might be expected from the inclination of the Greek Christians to speculation and argument,1 when external tranquillity was afforded them, after the cessation of persecution.

Thus theological controversies were unavoidable, though they would have had none other than a salutary influence on the development of reason, if parties had abided by the old distinction between ríoτis and yvwois with clear consciousness; and if debated questions belonging to theology had not been drawn into the province of religion and the church. But the very simplicity of the older articles of faith frequently invited the disputants to appeal to them in their own favor, and so to accuse their opponents of deviating from the faith. If the accused also wished to lay claim for themselves to that freedom of speculation on the basis of the Tíoris, the hierarchy, on the other hand, was a natural enemy to such liberty as would withdraw from its guardianship any department affecting the church, and had, of course, an interest in bringing all theological matters of debate from the 1 Cicero de Orat. i. 11: Graeculos homines contentionis cupidiores quam veritatis.

province of theology into the province of religious faith, in order to be able to lay claim to the right of decision. This interest now appeared the more reckless in proportion as opposition to the heathen ceased to be a formidable thing, requiring a forbearing patience within the church, and in proportion as the hierarchy was now supported by worldly power.

Thus religious controversies assumed at the present time a very different character. While they were formerly limited to particular provinces, the whole Christian world was now divided by theological disputes into two parties. To put an end to the division by a final ecclesiastical decision the emperors called general councils (ovvodo oikovμeviraí), elevated their decisions into laws of the realm, and applied worldly power to enforce them universally. In earlier times, the councils summoned against heretics contented themselves merely with warding off the false doctrine by denials; but now the general councils, feeling their ecclesiastical importance, and supported by the imperial power, began to exalt positive decisions regarding disputed points, into ecclesiastical articles of faith. Thus the development of doctrines proceeded more rapidly, while the field left to free speculation was always narrowed in proportion. On this very account, too, opponents presented a much more obstinate opposition, and the schisms became greater and more stiff-necked. The struggle had the most important influence on the development of the internal relations of the church, and was even of great political moment, from the circumstance of the emperors themselves taking a share in it. Hence, from this time forward, the history of theological disputes forms the central point not only of the whole history of the church, but sometimes also of the political history of the Roman empire.

2

2 Hilarius de Trinitate, ii. 1: Sufficiebat quidem credentibus Dei sermo,--cum dicit Dominus: Euntes nunc docete omnes gentes, baptizantes eos in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus sancti, etc.-Sed compellimur haereticorum et blasphemantium vitiis illicita agere, ardua scandere, ineffabilia eloqui, inconcessa praesumere. Et cum sola fide expleri quae praecepta sunt oporteret, adorare scilicet Patrem, et venerari cum eo Filium, sancto Spiritu abundare: cogimur sermonis nostri humilitatem ad ea quae inenarrabilia sunt extendere, et in vitium vitio coarctamur alieno; ut quae contineri religione mentium oportuisset, nunc in periculum humani eloquii proferantur.