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ON THE STRUCTURE OF ANIMALS.

SUPPORT OF THE HEAD OF THE ELEPHANT.

WHEN We stoop forward, as in reading a book which lies on the table, we may feel a ligament extending from the projecting part of the spine, between the shoulders, to the back part of the head. It suspends the head, and relieves the muscles. But as man generally carries his head erect, this ligament is not to be compared in strength with the corresponding part in quadrupeds, where, from the horizontal position of the spine, the head always hangs. It is long and strong in the horse; and the admirable thing is, the accurate adjustment of the elasticity of this ligament to the weight and position of the head, which is balanced by it as on a steel-yard. With this circumstance in our mind, let us observe the peculiar form of the elephant. One of the grinders of the Elephant weighs seventeen pounds, and of these there are four; the jaws must be provided to give socketing to such teeth, and must have space and strength, to give lodgment and attachment to muscles sufficient for moving this grinding machine: the animal must have its defence too. Now each of the tusks sometimes weighs as much as one hundred and thirteen pounds. To support this enormous and heavy head, the seven vertebræ of the neck of this animal, (the same number that we find in the giraffe,) are compressed in so remarkable a manner as to bring the head close upon the body, making it, as it were, a part of the body without the interposition of a neck. But the animal must feed; and as its head cannot reach the ground, it must possess an instrument like a hand, to minister to the mouth, to grasp the herbage, and lift it to its lips. This instrument we see in the proboscis, or trunk.

Let us now see how the neck and head are accommodated for feeding, when there is no proboscis, and when the animal has a short neck. The Elk is a strange uncouth animal, from the setting on of its head. The weight of the horns is enormous; and if the head and horns were extended forwards from the body on an elongated neck, they would overbalance the body. When we observe, also, the want of relation between the length of the fore-legs and that of the neck, it becomes an interesting circumstance to find, that the animal feeds off the sides of rocks, and does not browse upon the herbage at its feet. A remarkable proof how unable this animal is to feed in the common way, was afforded by an accident which befel a fine specimen

HEAD AND NECK OF THE ELK.

in the Zoological Gardens. His food having been unintentionally scattered on the ground, he was obliged, in order to reach it, to extend his fore-legs laterally; in this position his foot slipped, he dislocated his shoulder, and died of the accident.Bridgewater Treatise; Sir CHARLES BELL on the Hand.

THERE is no kind of knowledge which, in the hands of the diligent and skilful, will not turn to account. Honey exudes from all flowers, the bitter not excepted; and the bee knows how to extract it.-BISHOP HORNE.

DURING the course of my life, I have acquired some knowledge of men and manners, in active life, and amidst occupations the most various. From that knowledge, and from all my experience, I now protest that I never knew a man that was bad fit for any service that was good. There was always some disqualifying ingredient mixing with the compound, and spoiling it. The man seems paralytic on that side: his muscles there have lost their tone and natural properties; they cannot move. In short, the accomplishment of any thing good is a physical impossibility in such a man. He could not if he would, and it is not more certain than that he would not if he could, do a good or a virtuous action.-BURKE.

HE who sacrifices religion to wit, like the people mentioned by Ælian, worships a fly, and offers an ox to it.-BISHOP HORNE.

NATIONAL happiness must be produced through the influ ence of religious laws.-SOUTHEY.

WITH AN ALMANACK ON NEW YEAR'S DAY.
Ir an Almanack teach us that life wears away,
It tells us how short-lived our sorrow;

If it register joys that must quickly decay
It but points out far brighter to-morrow
For then, when the grave shall conclude the brief year
Of earth-born vexations and pleasures,

To the Christian, uprising aloft from the bier,
New worlds shall but open new treasures.
May the lot be my 's both portions to know,
That to mortals or seraphs are given;

On earth, every blessing that earth can bestow,
With reversion of blessings in heaven.-S. C W.

LONDON:

JOHN WILLIAM PARKER, WEST STRAND. PUBLISHED IN WEEKLY NUMBERS, PRICE ONE PENNY, AND IN MONTHLY PARTS, PRICE SIXPENCE, AND

Sold by all Booksellers and Newsvenders in the Kingdom.

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VOL. IV

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TERATURER

&EDUCATION

Magazine.

JANUARY, 1834.

PRICE

{ONE PENNY.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION, APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

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101

THE CITY OF AMSTERDAM,

AMST

SOME ACCOUNT OF THE CITY OF AMSTERDAM.

AMSTERDAM, the capital of Holland, and one of the chief commercial cities of Europe, is situated at the mouth of the river Amstel, where it falls into the Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee, or Southern Sea. From this it is separated by a bar, | the only passage through which is a channel called the Pampus. The Amstel is formed by the junction of the Drecht and the Meyert, two rivulets, which meet near the village of Uithoorn, a few miles from Amsterdam, and in its progress towards the city is several feet above the level of the adjacent country, its waters being restrained by strong embankments.

HISTORY.

NOTHING certain is known of the history of Amsterdam, further back than the thirteenth century, when the Lords of Amstel possessed a castle at the mouth of the river, around which fishermen erected their huts. In course of time the huts increased to a village, which was called Amstels Vesten, or the fort of the Amstel, because a fort was erected to defend it. Towards the end of the thirteenth century it was destroyed by fire, and shortly afterwards rebuilt.

A new dyke was constructed along both banks of the Amstel, as far as its mouth; a second along the Y, to the spot now occupied by the Water-Bridge, or Damrak, called Paapenbrug, and to this latter was added a sluice-gate, called, in the language of the country, a dam. In a short time, Amstels Vesten assumed the character of a town, and received the name of Amstelsdam, or Amsterdam.

Until the year 1490, however, it was surrounded merely by a weak palisado. At this time it was encompassed by a wall of brick, constructed by order of Mary of Burgundy, in order to defend it from the incursions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, who were frequently quarrelling with the Hollanders; but it was soon after reduced to ashes. The people of Guelderland besieged it in 1512; but, not succeeding in their attempts to take it, they set fire to the ships in the harbour. In 1525 the town-house of Amsterdam was attacked by a party of wild enthusiasts, under an Anabaptist leader; but they were defeated by the citizens, and most of them were cut to pieces. Tumalts of a similar kind were renewed by persons of the same description in 1535. The deputies of John of Leyden, who asserted that God had made him a present of the Cities of Amsterdam, Devinter, and Wesel, assembled twelve of their associates at midnight, five of whom were women, and running, madly, at the head of them, into the streets, exclaimed, "Woe, woe; the wrath of God; woe to Babylon." This outrage was soon quelled, but was followed by a regular and deep-laid conspiracy against the magistrates of Amsterdam, with a design to wrest the government of the city out of their hands. Van Geelen, the head of these insurgents, marched his fanatical troop to the town-house, on the day appointed, with drums beating and colours flying, and there fixed his head quarters. He was attacked by the burghers, assisted by regular troops, and headed by several of the burgomasters of the city; and, after an obstinate resistance, he was surrounded, with his whole troop, and they were put to death in the severest and most dreadful manner. In 1578 Amsterdam was besieged by the Hollanders, and, after a resistance of ten months, capitulated.

During the sixteenth century Amsterdam became a place of considerable commerce, particularly with the Baltic, and obtained the greater part of the trade of Antwerp, after that town had fallen a second time under the dominion of the Spaniards. In 1585 the western, or new part of the city, was built, and new accessions were made in 1593, 1612, and 1658. In 1622 it contained 100,000 inhabitants. During the eighteenth century it acquired so much wealth, that it surpassed every other city in Europe. It was the great mart for all the productions of the east and west, and its harbour was always crowded with ships; but, after the change of government in 1795, and the forced alliance of Holland with France, its trade and wealth continually diminished. The revolution, ever, of 1813, restored the business of Amsterdam, which has increased very considerably since that time.

and is nine miles and a half in circumference. It covers a space of about 900 acres, and is surrounded by a ditch, about eighty feet wide, bordered by a row of trees. The ramparts have been pulled down, but there are still remaining twenty-six bastions which formerly defended the walls, and these have been converted into mills for grinding corn, and other purposes. There are eight handsome stone gates, several of which bear the name of the towns to which the respective roads lead, namely, the Leyden-Gate, the Utrecht-Gate, the Haerlem-Gate, &c. The number of houses amounts to 26,400, and of the inhabitants to 180,000, about 17,000 of whom are Jews. In 1785 the inhabitants are said to have amounted to 230,000, and in 1812 to 200,000.

The greater part of the inhabitants are engaged in trade, and but few in manufactures, except of every-day consumption. Many of the poorer classes live in cellars under the houses of the rich, and others in apartments erected on the decks of their trading vessels.

The soil is so marshy, that the whole town is built upon piles, which are driven into the mud by means of machinery, and on which are laid strong planks of oak. As each of these piles is thirty or forty feet long, some idea may be formed of the immense quantity of timber employed in the construction of this city. It was in reference to the forest foundations of this wonderful place, that the celebrated Erasmus sportively observed, when he first visited it, that he had reached a city, the inhabitants of which, like crows, lived at the tops of trees.

The Amstel divides the town into two parts; that on the east side called Oude Zyde, the old side, because it was the first occupied, and that on the west, called the Nieuwe Zyde, the new side. Having reached the centre of the town, it takes the name of Rokin, and flows under this name to the Exchange, beneath which it passes. In the remainder of its course through the town to the Y, it is called the Damrak. Besides this stream, Amsterdam is intersected by an immense number of canals, which branch off from the Amstel, and divide the whole town into small islands, connected together by two hundred and ninety bridges of wood or stone, which are, however, so contrived, as to allow a free passage for vessels of every description.

In a commercial point of view, these canals are very convenient; but the water being stagnant, and large quantities of filth being constantly thrown into them, they would soon become a nuisance, were not means taken for cleansing them. Mills are therefore constructed for the express purpose of giving motion to the water in a few of the principal canals, and drawing up the mud, which is sold as manure. The stagnant water is discharged into the Y, and fresh supplies are introduced from the Amstel. The water of these canals is generally about eight or nine feet deep, and the mud at the bottom five or six more. The surface usually presents an olive-coloured green, but seldom emits any disagreeable smell, except when the vessels are moved from one station to another. The smell is then very unpleasant, but cannot be so unwholesome as some persons have supposed, for few cities can boast more robust and healthy inhabitants than Amsterdam. It is said, however, that no cavalry are kept here, as the horses become ill, it is supposed, from the badness of the

water.

For the supply of the inhabitants with water for domestic purposes, the article is brought from the river Vegt at Wesp, a small town five or six miles distant, and sold in the streets at about a farthing for a pail. In winter, however, the price sometimes increases to sixpence. Rainwater is also carefully collected in cisterns.

THE PORT.

THE port of Amsterdam is a mile and a half in length, and above a thousand paces in breadth, and is filled with a multitude of vessels, forming a kind of floating city. Towards the Y, the town is defended against the enhow-croachments of the water, and the drifting of masses of ice, by a double row of piles driven into the ground, and connected together by horizontal beams, called boomen, or barriers. Between these piles are twenty-one openings, through which the ships pass in and out, and which are shut every evening at the ringing of a bell, so that no vessel can arrive at, or depart from the quay. In the

SITUATION AND EXTENT. AMSTERDAM is built in the form of a crescent, the inward curved line and two horns of which extend along the Y,

summer the port-bell is rung about ten o'clock, and in winter at half-past four. There is a sort of basin outside the barriers, called the Laag, in which the heavy ships lie. The breadth of the Y, between the city and the opposite shore, is about a mile and a half.

On the quay adjoining the port, is the Herring-Tower, at which the merchants concerned in the herring-fishery hold their meetings, and keep their accounts. On the return of the boats from the fishery, it is one of the busiest scenes in Amsterdam. The commencement of the season is hailed with every demonstration of joy, and the same kind of emblems are exhibited as at a general festival in England. At every house where pickled herrings are sold, an ornamented garland is hung over the door, composed of box-leaves or branches, intermixed with gilt or lacquered paper. The fish are cured as soon as they are caught, and the first that are brought to market, are sold at sixpence, and even a shilling a piece. So important has this fishery always been considered, that the first draught of herrings is always presented to the King; and opulent families have been known, in former times, to give seven shillings, and even a guinea, for the first herrings exposed to sale. The superior manner in which the Dutch pickle and preserve herrings, is said to be peculiar to themselves. On the quay also is another tower, called the Serayershoek Toor, or Tower of Mourners, as it stands on the spot where the wives and children of seamen were accustomed to take leave of their husbands and fathers embarking on foreign voyages. It is now an office connected with the port.

The New Canal, extending from Bucksloot, which is exactly opposite Amsterdam, to the Helder, is of great advantage to the city, as it obviates the necessity of large vessels unloading before they enter the harbour, and encountering the passage through the Zuyder Zee, which was peculiarly difficult with contrary winds. This canal, which is fifty miles and a half long, one hundred and twenty-four feet in breadth at the surface, thirty-six at the bottom, and twenty-one feet in depth, was begun in 1819, and finished in 1825, at an expense of about £750,000. Like the Dutch canals generally, its level is that of the high tides of the sea, from which it receives its supply of water. The canal is wide enough to admit of one frigate passing another. The time occupied in tracking a vessel from Amsterdam, is eighteen hours.

STREETS, &c.

of many of the houses are surmounted, not with circular pots, but with square wooden frames, consisting of four small posts, capped with a horizontal board, and open on every side. When built of brick, they are usually formed in the shape of a Y. Many of the houses, except in the centre of the town, have gardens. The apartments are generally ornamented with taste, very much in the French style, and the walls are frequently painted with a series of landscapes in oil-colours, instead of being hung with paper, or stuccoed.

All the principal dwellings have a profusion of windows of large plate-glass, but this is more for the sake of ornament than light, for the Dutch are so fond of retirement, that the blinds on the inside are seldom drawn up. In order to indulge their love of seclusion, small mirrors are projected from the side of the window into the street, so as to command a view of the passengers, and save the observer, who sits behind a curtain in the room, the trouble of rising or looking down to see what is passing. In many instances, also, another mirror is fixed, so as to show who is coming to the doors, and thus give notice of the approach of an unwelcome visiter.

The mode of building houses in Holland, is very different from that pursued in this country. Instead of beginning at the foundation, they commence at the top, and build downwards. The large beams intended to sup port the roof and attic, are made to rest in the party-walls of the adjoining houses; on these beams, a studded wooden frame is erected, to sustain the roof and flooring. In this state, the attic is often seen hanging for a considerable time before the other parts of the building are commenced. One advantage of this method is, that the lower part is kept dry, and the workmen can at all times proceed with their labours, regardless of the weather. The lower part of the house also consists of stud-work, strongly frained together, and contracts in its descent to the foundation, which rests upon piles driven into the mud. From this circumstance, many of the houses lean towards the street, and some of them are several feet out of the perpendicular, particularly at the corners of the streets, where they are still more contracted, to allow greater room to the passengers. The panels of the frames are filled up with brick-work, but nearly the whole stress is upon the framework. The same method of building is pursued in some parts of Belgium.

AMSTERDAM has no noble squares, like those which add so much to the splendour of London, nor is there any bridge worthy of being noticed, except that over the river Amstel, which is built of brick and stone, is six hundred feet in length, seventy in breadth, and is tolerably hand-drawn by one horse; the driver walks by the side of it, some. It is called the Lover's Bridge, and commands a good view of the city on one side, and the adjacent polders on the other. This is the bridge seen in the back-ground of the view of Amsterdam given in the first page.

Many of the streets of Amsterdam are narrow, but others are remarkably spacious, and have a magnificent appearance; such as the Heeren-Graft, (Lord-Street,) the Keyser's- Graft, (King-Street,) and the PrinssenGraft, (Prince's-Street,) which are upwards of a hundred and forty feet in width, and following the crescent shape of the town, are each about two miles in length. All the streets are remarkable for their cleanliness, and are very neatly paved, chiefly with brick, but there is no separate path for pedestrians. In most of them, a canal runs along the centre, bordered on each side by a row of noble elm, oak, or linden trees. The principal shops are in the Kalver's-straat, and the Warmoes-straat, which are usually thronged with passengers.

HOUSES, AND MODE OF BUILDING. MOST of the houses are built of brick, and almost all are approached by flights or steps. They are generally lofty, and pointed at the top, the gable-end being towards the street. In some parts of the town they are constructed with double fronts, one towards the street, and the other towards a canal. Some of them have stone-fronts, with balconies and columns in the Italian style, but many, of even the best houses, are disfigured by transforming the centre windows of the upper story into doors, through which merchandise of every description is drawn by a crane, fixed at the top of the house, the inhabitants, however wealthy, being always disposed to trade. The chimneys

In order that the foundations of the houses may not be disturbed by the rolling along the streets of wheel-carriages, these vehicles are, by law, limited to a certain num ber, which is very small compared with the size of the city. A carriage called by the Dutch a sley, is used in their room; it is the body of a coach fixed upon a sledge, and which he holds with one hand to prevent its falling over, and with the other the reins. It holds four persons, and moves at the rate of about three miles an hour. This mode of conveyance is rendered necessary, by the steep ascent of the draw-bridges over the canals, where it would be unsafe to use a wheel-carriage, for if it ran back in the act of passing over, the whole would fall into the water. In the winter it is also convenient, as the sley glides over the ice and snow, which would obstruct an ordinary car riage. One of these carriages is represented in the view, crossing the bridge.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS. AMONGST the public buildings of Amsterdam, the Royal Palace, formerly the Town Hall or Stadthouse, holds the first place. It is unquestionably a wonderful edifice, considering that Holland furnishes no stone, and that the foundation of the building, like that of all others in Amsterdam, was boggy; the latter circumstance ren dered it necessary to have an artificial foundation of extraordinary construction and magnitude, and accordingly, it rests upon thirteen thousand six hundred and ninetyfive massy trees or piles, the first of which was driven on the 20th of January, 1648, and the last on the 6th of October following, when the first stone, with a suitable inscription, was laid; and, seven years afterwards, the different colleges of magistrates took formal possession of the apartments allotted for their respective offices, but at this time the roof and dome were not completed; the expense of this mighty edifice amounted to two millions sterling. The whole of the building, with the exception of the ground-floor, which is of brick, is of free-stone. The principal architect was John Van Kampen, who

36

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THE ROYAL PALACE AT AMSTERDAM.

acted under the control of four burgomasters. The area in which it stands is spacious, and is called the Dam. The form of the building is square, its front is two hundred and eighty-two feet, its depth two hundred and fifty-five, and its height one hundred and sixteen, exclusive of the tower, which is sixty-seven feet.

The front of the Palace has seven small doorways, which were intended for the representatives of the Seven United Provinces; but the front entrance is now reserved for the members of the Royal Family, and the back appropriated to the ministers, public officers, and visiters. The want of a grand entrance is a great architectural defect, which immediately excites the surprise of the traveller, but it was so constructed, from the wary precautionary foresight of the magistrates, who had the superintendence of the building, for the purpose of preventing free access to a mob, in case of tumult.

Each front has a projecting portion in the centre, and at the angles of the building are pavilions surmounted by eagles of gilt bronze, and imperial crowns, which were presented to the city by Maximilian, emperor of Germany. On the façade, and ranged along the second story, there are thirty pilasters of the composite order, each thirty-six feet in height; a second range, of the Corinthian order, forms a third story, supporting the entablature, out of which rises a pediment, adorned with sculpture; and on the cornice are figures of Peace, Prudence, and Justice. The pediment at the back is also sculptured, and on the cornice are figures of Strength, Temperance, and Vigilance. On the top of the building is a cupola and dome, terminated by a vane in the form of a ship, the ancient arms of the town.

The principal hall in the Palace is a splendid apartment, one hundred and fifty-two feet long, sixty broad, and one hundred high. The walls are entirely composed of white marble, and are hung with trophies and standards taken by the Dutch. The bronze gates and railing which form the grand entrance are massive, but beautifully executed : over this entrance is a colonnade of Corinthian pillars of red and white marble. At one end is a colossal figure of Atlas, attended by Vigilance and Wisdom. The roof is painted with allegorical figures; and upon the floor, the celestial and terrestrial globes are delineated in brass and various coloured marbles, arranged in three large circles, twenty-two feet diameter. palace were formerly deposited the vast treasures of the On the ground-floor of the Bank of Amsterdam, which, at one period of the city's commercial prosperity, are said to have amounted to 40,000,000l. sterling of the precious metals. This building also formerly contained prisons, both for criminals and debtors, but these have been transferred to more suitable situations.

The prospect from the tower, or dome, is very extensive, commanding the whole of the city and its environs, crowded with windmills, the river Y, filled with ships, the Zuyder Zee, the Amstel, the Haerlem Lake, and the Arsenal. The tower contains a vast number of bells, the largest of which

weighs between six and seven thousand pounds; the carillons in this dome are remarkably sweet. The brass barrel by which the airs are played, is seven feet and a half in diameter, and weighs four thousand four hundred and seventy-four pounds. The clock strikes the full hour repeats it upon a bell of a deeper tone. This, indeed, is the at the half-hour, and upon the expiration of the full hour, quently led travellers, unacquainted with the circumstance, case with many of the clocks in Holland, and has freinto error.

1808, he took possession of this building as his palace, When Louis Buonaparte was created King of Holland, in and the civil and municipal authorities, who then occupied it, were removed to a building in the vicinity, which was once a convent, but had been converted at the Reformation into the Prince's Hotel, and afterwards became the Admiralty.

but enlarged in 1668, is situated at the end of the Rokin,
The Exchange, which was built between 1608 and 1613,
and rests upon five arches, through which the Amstel
flows into the Damrak. It is a quadrangular building of
free-stone, two hundred and fifty feet long, and one hun-
rounded by galleries, beneath which the merchants assemble.
dred and forty wide, consisting of an open square sur-
The galleries are supported by marble columns, each
being numbered, and appropriated to some particular class
of traders. The upper part of the Exchange is occupied
by the treasury, and the cellars on both sides are inhabited.
In one part of the building is an inscription, recording the
visit of the Emperor Alexander in 1814. Although the
commerce of Amsterdam is not so extensive as in former
the Exchange presents a bustling scene.
times, yet it is still important; and at 3 o'clock every day,

building of free-stone, erected in 1766.
The Corn Exchange, situated on the Damrak, is a
gallery, forming three sides of a square, the fourth,
towards the street, being enclosed by an iron railing.
It is a covered

Amsterdam. It is situated on the island of Kattenburg,
The Dock-yard is one of the most remarkable objects in
and has the advantage of a large basin communicating
with the Y. There are five slips for building ships of the
line, four for the largest class of frigates, and twelve for
smaller vessels.

and is adorned with sculpture, emblematical of navigation. erected in 1665. It is 220 feet in length, and 200 in breadth, The Arsenal, adjoining the Dock-yard, is a fine building, At the top of the building is a reservoir, capable of holding sixteen hundred tons of water, which, in case of fire, may be distributed through all parts of the edifice. The number of workmen employed here, is about 1500.

The Naval School is near the Arsenal. It enjoys consisailors, properly recommended, are educated gratuitously, derable funds, by means of which, the children of common while the sons of officers are admitted on payment of a small sum monthly. In the yard is a vessel completely rigged, on which the boys are exercised.

Another large building, situated near the Muyden Gate,

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