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the others: but it would be a great convenience, if all thermometers were constructed to the same scale. When a thermometer is graduated, or has its scale divided into equal parts, we have an accurate measure of the sensible heat of the atmosphere, or of any other body to which it can be applied. And thus we can know precisely what changes take place in the temperature of the air.

The changes in the weight of the air are also capable of being exactly measured, by an instrument constructed for that purpose, the BAROMETER, or Weight

measurer.

Α

B

W

It can easily be shown that the air has some weight. For if the air be pumped out of a copper ball, and the empty ball be then accurately weighed, there is found to be a sensible increase of weight as soon as the air is again admitted: the air being about 840 times lighter than the same bulk of water. If the weight of a given quantity of air could be accurately ascertained in this manner, at different times, a tolerably good measure of the change of weight might be obtained. But this change can be measured far more conveniently by taking advantage of a property of all fluids, of which air is one. If a bent tube, such as ABC, be partly filled with a fluid, and the tube be then held upright, with the part c lowest, the fluid will stand at the same height in both branches. But, if two different fluids, as mercury and water; one of which is, bulk for bulk, heavier than the other, be put in, the upper surfaces, м and w, will no longer be on the same level. If D be the point where the two fluids join, the upper surface of the water, w, will be fourteen times as much above D, as the upper surface of the mercury, м, is; mercury being fourteen times heavier than water. And if a column D W of a lighter fluid than water be above D, the height of the mercury in the leg C A will be proportionally less. And if air were employed instead of water, no air being admitted above the mercury at M, the height of the mercury would be only about an 840th part as great, as if a column of water of the same length were used.

M

Α

Σ

B

A:

Now suppose the tube BCA, having the leg AC more than thirty-eight inches long, to be perfectly closed at and that mercury were gently poured in at B, and that means could be taken to shut out all the air from the part a C, and to fill that leg of the bent tube entirely with mercury. If the tube were now set upright, the air being freely admitted at B, the upper surface of the mercury would be found to have settled at some point м, at the height of about thirty inches above the line Dd, which is the level of the lower surface of the mercury on which the air rests at D. The pressure of the mercury above Dd is therefore the exact measure of the pressure of the air upon D, arising from the weight of the air in D B, and of all the air above B up to the top of the atmosphere: and if, from any causes, the pressure of the air on D is increased or diminished, the change will be shown by a corresponding rise or fall of the upper surface of the mercury at M. Such an instrument would be a barometer: and if

| fitted with a scale at M, would show by inspection the change of level of the surface of the mercury, allowance being made for the rise or fall also of the surface D. It will be observed, that this explanation is not a description of the manner in which a barometer is practically constructed, but simply to show familiarly the principle upon which it acts. The tube at D is generally much larger than the part AC; and sometimes the tube AC is straight, with its lower end plunged in a basin of mercury. In

B

some barometers, a weight w rests on the surface D of the mercury, partly balanced by another weight v, suspended by a string passing over a pulley P. The axis of this pulley carries a pointer N, which marks upon a dial-plate the rise or fall of the surface D, and consequently the change in the pressure of the air. The tubes and pulley are, of course, concealed from view by the case of the instrument.

The changes in the moisture of the air are measured by an HYGROMETER, or Moisture-measurer. Some of these instruments are constructed upon the principle of measuring the change in certain bodies, as cat-gut, cord, hair, &c., which contract by moisture, and expand by dryness: or of others, as whalebone, wood, &c., which expand by moisture, and contract by dryness.

Another far more accurate Hygrometer, invented some time since by Mr. Daniell, measures the moisture of the atmosphere, by marking the temperature of a surface on which the moisture of the atmosphere just begins to be condensed in the form of dew. The degree of the thermometer, at which this deposition of moisture takes place, is called the dew-point.

C.

AFFECTING INCIDENT. When Dr. Hutton was Bishop of Durham (as we are told by his biographer), and as he was travelling over Cam, betwixt Wensleydale and Ingleton, he suddenly dismounted, and, having delivered his horse to a servant, walked to a particular place at some distance for some time in prayer. On his return, one of his attendfrom the highway, where he kneeled down, and continued ants took the liberty of inquiring what was his master's motive for so singular an act; in answer to which, the Bishop informed him, that when he was a poor boy, without shoes or stockings, traversing this cold and bleak mountain on a frosty day, he remembered that he had order to warm his feet and legs on the spot.-WHITAKER'S disturbed a red cow, then lying on that identical place, in History of Richmondshire.

SENTENCES of Thales, of Miletus, in Ionia, one of the
Seven Sages of Greece, born 580 years before the Chris-
tian era.
-The Universe; for

What is it that is most beautiful?it is the work of God.

What is most powerful?-Necessity; because it triumphs over all things.

What is most difficult?-To know one s self.
What is most easy ?—To give advice.

What method must we take to lead a good life?----To do nothing we would condemn in others.

What is necessary to happiness ?---A sound body and a contented mind.

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It is well known, that most parts of India are still grievously infested with wild beasts. In all situations, except those most inhabited, the lion, or the tiger, or the buffalo, render a passage through the jungles, or thickets, in an extreme degree dangerous. It is essential, therefore, to the safety of the inhabitants, that these powerful enemies should be kept in subjection; and this desirable object is effected by enterprising and intrepid persons, at the hazard of their own personal safety.

In the pursuit of the formidable tiger, the elephant is a most useful assistant, and in this work it displays the greatest sagacity and courage. Such is its care of its rider, that, in passing through the jungles, whenever a branch hangs in the way of the howdah, or seat raised on his back, although the elephant itself could easily pass in security under it, yet, knowing it would injure or incommode its master, the considerate animal seizes it with its trunk, and rends it off, that no inconvenience may be sustained by his rider. So, also, it is most useful in giving notice of a tiger being near; for, whenever an elephant scents a tiger, which it can do at some distance, it utters a shrill cry. But it is in the attack that it chiefly displays its powers of usefulness; for then it raises its trunk perpendicularly, so that when the tiger charges, it may be prepared to repel the attack, as also to prevent a surprise; since, if the tiger can but seize the trunk, the elephant is disarmed. The leaps, or springs, which the tiger makes in.its charge, are truly astonishing, yet a well-trained elephant will, generally, succeed in repelling the most furious attack, by dashing the springing tiger to the earth with its trunk, when, if its foe be at all stunned or maimed by the fall, or wounded by the rifle of the rider, the ponderous foot of the mighty beast will actually crush the fallen victim, and at once complete its destruction. But it sometimes does happen, that an elephant turns away from the contest; and when this is the case, the life of the rider is

in the greatest jeopardy, for the tiger can easily climb up on the elephant in the rear, and seize the person in the howdah before he can turn to defend himself. An instance of such a seizure occurred some few years ago. The circumstances were these.

A party of Europeans, consisting of some indigoplanters, and of some officers of a native regiment, stationed in their neighbourhood, went into the jungles for the purpose of shooting tigers. They had not proceeded far, before they roused an immense tigress, which, with the greatest intrepidity, charged the line of elephants on which they were seated. At this moment, a female elephant, in the direct point of attack, which had been lately purchased, and was hitherto untried, through dread of the approaching enemy, turned suddenly round to fly from the field of battle. It was in vain that the mohaut, or driver, exerted all his skill to make her face the tigress. The active creature, therefore, instantly sprang upon her back, and seizing the person in the howdah by the thigh, speedily brought him to the ground: then throwing him, quite stunned by the fall, over her shoulders, just in the same manner as a fox carries a goose, she started off to the jungle. Every rifle was pointed at her; but no one dared to fire, because of the position in which the captive lay on the tigress's back. She went through the jungle-grass much faster than the elephants could, so that the party soon lost sight of their prey: yet they were enabled to trace her by the blood in her track; and, as a forlorn hope, they resolved to follow on, to see if it were possible to save the remains of their friend from being devoured by the ferocious brute. As they proceeded, the traces grew fainter and fainter, until at length, bewildered in the heart of the jungle, they were about to give up the search in despair, when all at once, they came, most unexpectedly, upon the objects of their pursuit. To their infinite astonishment they beheld the tigress lying dead upon the long jungle.

grass, still griping fast the limb of their unfortunate companion in her tremendous jaws; whilst he, though still sensible, was unable, from loss of blood, to reply to the questions put to him. To extricate his leg from the creature's mouth they found impossible, without first cutting off her head. This therefore was immediately done, and the jaws being separated, the fangs were drawn out of the wounds: and, as one of the party providentially happened to be a surgeon, the patient was properly attended to; and the party had the great felicity of returning with their friend, rescued from the most perilious situation, and with hopes of his recovery. He was taken to the rearest bungalow, and by the aid thus afforded, he was in a short time able to see his friends, when he explained to them the means by which he was preserved.

For some time after the animal had seized him, it appeared that he had continued insensible, being stunned by the fall, faint from the loss of blood, as well as from the excruciating pain which her fangs inflicted. When he came to himself, he discovered that he was lying on the back of the tigress, who was trotting along at a smart pace through the jungle, whilst at times, his face and hands received the most violent scratches, from the thorns and bushes through which she dragged him. He gave himself up as lost, considering that not the least glimpse of hope remained, and consequently, determined to lie quietly on her back, waiting the issue-when it struck him that he had a pair of pistols in his girdle, with which he might yet destroy his captor. After several attempts, which, from the weakness which the loss of blood had occasioned, proved ineffectual, he at length succeeded in drawing one of them from the belt, and directed it at the creature's head. He fired, but the only effect it seemed to produce, was, that after giving him an angry shake, by which she made her fangs meet more closely in his flesh, her pace was quickened. From the agonizing pain this caused, he again fainted away; and remained totally unconscious of what was passing for some minutes. However, recovering a little, he determined to try the effect of another shot, in a different place. Drawing the remaining pistol from his girdle, and pointing the muzzle under the blade-bone of the shoulder, in the direction of the heart, he once more fired: the tigress fell dead in a moment, and neither howled nor struggled after she fell.

But he was not yet out of danger. He had not the power to call out for aid, and consequently, though he heard his friends approaching, he feared, lest they might pass the spot, without observing where he lay. Happily, however, it proved otherwise, and thus his life was saved. Under medical care, he recovered from his wounds: and though, from his thigh being so dreadfully torn by the fangs of the tigress, he afterwards suffered from lameness, yet he had abundant reason to be thankful, for being thus providentially preserved.

D. I. E.

[From STATHAM's Indian Recollections.] The animals and costumes in our Engraving are adopted from the spirited Plates of Eastern Sports in CAPTAIN MUNDAY'S lively and interesting Sketches of India.

If we are free from the torment of painful disease, from which so many suffer; or from disasters of broken limbs, and all those many other miseries which threaten human nature; let us, therefore, rejoice and be thankful. Nay, which is a far greater mercy, if we are free from the burden of an accusing, tormenting conscience, a misery that none can bear, let us, therefore, praise God for his preventing grace; and say, every misery that I miss is a new mercy.-IZAAK WALTON.

SOCIETY.

IV. THE DIVISION OF LABOUR.-DIVISION OF
PROPERTY.

ONE advantage of the division of labour is, that in a great variety of cases, nearly the same time and labour are required to do the same thing on a larger or on a smaller scale. The most familiar instance of this, is the carriage of letters. It makes very little difference of trouble, and none of time, to carry one letter, or a whole parcel of letters, from one town to another: and hence, though there is no particular skill wanted in this business, there is, perhaps, no one instance that shows more clearly the benefit of the division of labour than the establishment of the Post-office. Were it not for the Post-office, each person would have to send a special messenger, when he wanted to write to his friend at a distance.

But there is an advantage of this kind which would be obtained immediately, and without the lapse of time taken up in observation and practice. In fact, a division of labour is almost instantly adopted for the occasion, in any case that suddenly demands it, even when there is no peculiar fitness in each person for the part allotted to him, and no thought of making the plan permanent. For instance, suppose a company travelling through some nearly desert country, such as many parts of America, and journeying together in a kind of caravan, for the sake of common security: when they came to a halting-place for the night, they would not fail to make some kind of arrangement off-hand, that some should unlade and fodder the cattle, while others should fetch fire-wood from the nearest thicket, and others, water from the spring: some, in the mean time, would be occupied in pitching the tents, or raising sheds of boughs; others, in getting food ready for the whole party; while some again, with their arms prepared, would be posted as sentinels in fit spots, to watch that the rest might not be surprised by bands of robbers. It would be plain to them, that but for such a plan, each man would have to go to the spring for water, and to the wood for fuel; would have to dress his own meal, with almost as much trouble as it costs to dress food for the whole; and would have to go through all these tasks, encumbered with his arms, and on the watch against mischief from without. Of course, if some of our supposed party chanced to be by nature, or by practice, well suited to some particular task, and others for another, these would be accordingly allotted to them in preference; but if all were alike in these points, the division of labour would still take place, and the chief advantage of it would still be felt.

Such a case as this exhibits an instance of what may be called a temporary community, containing a variety of labourers employed in their several callings. One portion of the members of a community, are occupied in protecting the rest from mischief; another in providing them with food; another in building their dwellings; and so of the rest.

But in order to the existence of such a state of things, it is necessary that the rights of property should be acknowledged, and that property should be well secured. "It is this main spring" (says Bishop Sumner, in the second volume of the Record's of the Creation) "which keeps the arts and civilized industry in motion. The first, who, having enclosed a spot of ground, has taken upon himself to assert, This is mine, and has remained undisturbed in the possession of it, gives a new aspect to society,' and lays the foundation, not of crimes, and wars, and murders, as Rousseau proceeds to say, as if these

were unknown to the savage; but he lays the foundation of improvement and civilization.

"Man is easily brought, and quickly reconciled to labour; but he does not undertake it for nothing. If he is in possession of immediate ease, he can only be induced to relinquish that present advantage, by the allurement of expected gain. Gratification, which, in some degree or other, forms the chief excitement of civilized life, is almost unknown to the savage. The only stimulus felt by him, is that of necessity. He is impelled by hunger to hunt for subsistence, and by cold, to provide against the rigour of the seasons. When his stock of provision is laid in, his rude clothing prepared, and his cabin constructed, he relapses into indolence; for the wants of necessity are supplied, and the stimulus, which urged him, is removed. However skilful he may be in the preparation of skins for clothing, or of reeds for building, beyond the wants of his own family, he has no demand for ingenuity or skill; for the equality of property has confined each man's possessions to the bare necessaries of life; and though he were to employ his art in providing for his whole tribe, they have nothing to offer him in exchange. As long as this state of things continues, it is plain, that we can expect neither improvement of art, nor exertion of industry. Whatever is fabricated, will be fabricated with almost equal rudeness, whilst each individual supplies his own wants; and he will continue to supply them, as long as the wants of the society are limited to the wants of nature. An intelligent traveller, who had an opportunity of observing this on the spot, remarks, exactly to the point, that the Indians of Guiana have no interest in the accumulation of property, and therefore, are not led to labour in order to attain wealth. Living under the most perfect equality, they are not impelled to industry, by that spirit of emulation which, in society, leads to great and unwearied toil.'

"But as soon as it has been agreed, by a compact of whatever kind, that the property before belonging to the community at large, shall be divided among the individuals who compose it, and, that whatever each of them shall hereafter obtain, shall be considered as his exclusive possession; the effect of this division will show, that industry requires no other stimulus, than a reward proportioned to its exertion. "We have an instance in the natives of the Pellew Islands, who, deprived as they were of all external advantages, afford a most decisive contrast to the inactivity of the American tribes. Before their accidental discovery in 1783, they had enjoyed no intercourse with civilized nations, had no acquaintance with the use of iron, or the cultivation of corn, or regular manufacture; but they had been fortunate in the establishment of a division of ranks, ascending from the servant to the king, and a division of property, rendering not only every man's house, furniture, or canoe his own, but also the land allotted to him, as long as he occupied and cultivated it. The effect of this is to be seen in habits so different from those hitherto represented, that the portion of time each family could spare from providing for their natural wants, was passed in the exercise of such little arts, as, while they kept them active and industrious, administered to their convenience and comfort. Here, also, were no traces of that want of curiosity which all travellers remark as so extraordinary in America; industry had sharpened their minds. The natives were constantly interested in obtaining every information respecting the English tools and workmanship."

After quoting thus largely from Bishop Sumner's work, we have to observe that the whole chapter

(Chap. III., Part. II.) is well worth a perusal, with a view to the point before us.

When, then, this distribution of employments had been established, the benefits arising from it to each individual would be so obvious, that it would tend towards a continual increase; the individual would easily discover, that he could much better supply his own wants by giving his whole, or his chief attention to one, or to a few, kinds of employment, and receiving from his neighbours in return the fruits of their industry, than by himself providing directly for all his own wants. As for the benefit thence arising to the COMMUNITY, that is a provision of Divine Wisdom; it is not necessary, nor is it usually the case, that each, who labours in his own department, should be urged to do so by public spirit, or should even perceive and contemplate (as in the case of our supposed little party of travellers), the benefit he is conferring on the rest. D.

THE IDOLS OF THE SAXONS.

II. THE IDOL OF THE MOON.

IN our last number we gave a list of seven of the idol deities, which, in the early times of Britain, not only received the adoration of the English Saxons, but furnished names to the various days of the week. Of these the Idol of the Moon, whence comes MONDAY, stands the second.

It was for the purpose of getting rid of this gross kind of idolatry which the Saxons had brought with them into Britain, that Augustin, or Austin, was sent hither by Pope Gregory the First, about the year 600. The

incident which is said to have led to this measure is very striking and curious; and though it is one with which many of our readers are, doubtless, well acquainted, as forming an interesting portion of early English history, we cannot deny ourselves the pleasure of stating it in the old and quaint style of a writer of 1605, (R. Verstegan.)

"It happened in the time that Aella reigned King of Deira, sometime a part of the kingdom of the Northumbers, that certain English children of that country, (whether taken in war, and so transported by enemies, or that it were tolerable among Pagan people to sell away their children,) were brought to Rome to be sold, (as captive heathen people are wont to be among Christians,) and standing there in the market. A certain reverend religious father, named Gregory, being a man (as witnesseth Venerable Bede,) of the greatest virtue and learning of his time, coming thither, and beholding them to be of a very fair complexion, ruddy and white, with yellowish hair, demanded of the merchant that had them to sell, of whence they were? which being told him, he asked if they were christened? It was answered that they were not: whereat, fetching a deep sigh, he said, Alas! that the author of darkness should yet detain people of such bright countenances in his possession, and that those with such fair faces should inwardly carry such foul souls. Demanding by what name this people were called, answer was made him that they were called Angles, or rather (if it were pronounced as they called themselves,) Engelisce, that is to say, English. The reverend Father perceiving this name to allude unto the name of Angeli, in Latin, said, Verily, not without cause are they called Angles, for they have faces like Angels, and meet it were that such were made partakers and coheirs with the angels in heaven. Then demanded he the name of the province from whence they came; and it was answered him, They were of Deira. That is well, quoth he, for they are to be delivered De ira Dei, that is, from the wrath of

God, and called to the mercy of Christ. What is | name of Monday, instead of Moon-day, and it was made the name, quoth he, of the king of that country? according to the picture here following:

[graphic]

It was answered that his name was Aella; unto which name also alluding, ALLELUJAH, quoth he, must be sounded in that prince's dominions, to the praise of Almighty God his Creator. And being stricken with much compassion, to behold that such angelical people, in respect of their great beauty and comeliness, should continue the bond-slaves of the foul fiend of hell, he went, &c." Then follows an account of Gregory's intention to visit England, towards which he took a three days' journey; of his recall by the entreaty of the people of Rome; and lastly, on his elevation to the popedom, of his sending Augustine and certain other monks to this country. They after some difficulties and their long journey, arrived in the Isle of Thanet," where King Ethelbert gave them audience, the result of which, was the baptism of the monarch and of most of his subjects, "the turning away of the people from serving and sacrificing unto their idols, THOR, WODEN, FRIGA, and the like; overthrowing the synagogue of Satan, and breaking down the abominable idols before mentioned."

Although it is certain, that through this conversion of the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine, Rome laid the first stone towards the foundation of her power in England; it is equally clear, that before that time, the Christian Church existed here and in Ireland, independent of that of Rome. Augustine could not prevail on the British bishops in Wales, to own allegiance to the Roman Pontiff; and Bede mentions, that the Irish bishops and priests differed from Rome, in the observance of Easter. The learned Archbishop Usher, in his treatise on the State and Succession of the Christian Churches, has shown this point at large. "He proves, from authors of undoubted credit," says Mr. Hone in his Life of Usher, " that even in the darkest and most ignorant times, Christ has always had a visible Church, untainted with the errors and corruptions of Romanism, and that these islands do not owe their christianity to Rome." This is an answer to the inquiry, "Where was our religion before Luther?"

It now only remains, in illustration of the print, to refer to the description by Verstegan.

"The next, according to the course of the days of the week, was the Idol of the Moon, whereof we yet retain the

LORD BURLEIGH.-That great and wise minister was used to say, "I will never trust any man not of sound religion for he that is false to God, can never be true to man."

[graphic]

THE NEW TOWN HALL, BIRMINGHAM. See p. 10.. LONDON; Published by JOHN WILLIAM PARKER, WEST STRAND; and sold by all Booksellers,

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