Socrates, in almost every dialogue, are indeed said to be somewhat exaggerated and unjust. It is certain, however, that their instruction was the means of filling the Grecian youth with a proud conceit, a pernicious selfishness, and habituating them to a certain want of thought, and the fact serves to explain the origin of numerous errors which existed even in the administration of political affairs, and greatly hindered the advancement of that genuine, serious and severe wisdom, which actually enlightens and improves. Besides, it can be shown that they inculcated many principles, which, of necessity, brought religion and virtue altogether into suspicion; and that they sought to recommend vice by the most specious delusions of eloquence, and all the subtleties of a puzzling system of dialectics. To their pernicious instruction is also to be ascribed a great part of those extravagant immoralities, which sprung up so rapidly and unexpectedly, in the most flourishing states of Greece, and which neither Socrates, nor his pupils, were able to limit or restrain. By this time, it is easy for us to draw the conclusion, that it is needless to look for any very comprehensive plan of benevolence among the philosophers before Socrates. The influence which their knowledge and opinions exerted upon society, will not allow us to think of finding any among them who were capable of forming such purposes as those of which we are in pursuit.

§ 72. I have already admitted that Pythagoras ought to be excepted from the above general remarks. It is certain, that, agreeably to the taste of his contemporaries, he also gave himself up to dreams respecting the above named subjects. Indeed, his fiery, vivacious, and enthusiastic spirit, must have greatly inclined him to such a course. On the other hand, however, it is also certain, that of all the philosophers before the time of Socrates, he paid the most attention to real happiness and moral improvement, and, as far as his sphere extended, he unquestionably labored very actively in their behalf.

It is to be regretted, that the history and opinions of this extraordinary man, are involved in such doubt and

*

uncertainty. Owing to the great want of contemporary writers and of credible accounts, as well as to the shameless fabrications of his senseless admirers of later ages, a cautious writer cannot assert any thing respecting him without some measure of fear. From what can be gathered, however, with any degree of certainty from ancient authors respecting Pythagoras, he seems, both in his institutions, and the instructions connected with them, to have had a plan before him, which did honor both to his intellect and heart. Tiedemann, who, with Meiner, has unquestionably thrown very great light upon the life and philosophy of Pythagoras, considers this plan the greatest which a philosopher ever conceived. "It was his intention," says this scholar, "in the first place, to enlighten his pupils, and exercise their understandings in difficult investigations, and then lay down precepts in accordance with which, they might, by means of good laws and religion, improve their fellow citizens and fill them with an increasing reverence for virtue, while they were to keep every thing concealed from the uninitiated in their own breast, and bring nothing to light any farther than it was carried into execution, and impart no more to any one, than he comprehended; by which means, a lasting influence was ultimately to be acquired for himself and school, in regard to the welfare of the human race. This was certainly one of the most exalted plans ever invented by a mortal!" According to this writer's opinion, therefore, the society of the Pythagoreans was to consist of a number of wise men firmly united together, who were to give laws, and impart instruction to the great mass of the people, according to their wants, and to carry their discoveries to the utmost boundaries of human knowledge; at the same time, in diffusing their light among the common people, they were to exercise wisdom and caution, and carefully avoid making schisms, and getting up new parties and sects. Such a society, he thinks, must have prov

* In his Geschichte des Ursprungs, Fortgangs und Verfalls der Wissenschaften Griechenland und Rom, Bd. I. Buch. III. S. 178 ff.

ed a great blessing to mankind, and the spirit itself have been peculiar to the Pythagorean institution.*

It is true that such a society, could it have existed, must have proved a very great blessing to the human family. The number of sages formed according to the Pythagorean plan, would have constituted as it were, the soul of mankind, and of course directed every member of this huge body, and diffused into it, as much good as was compatible with the interests of the whole, and as could be enjoyed. It is certain, however, that Pythagoras, even upon the supposition that he possessed such ingredients as Tiedemann puts into his hands, never thought of giving his plan that extent, which is the object of our present inquiry. In Graecia Magna, the place that he selected at the close of his long travels, as the sphere of his operations, he unquestionably intended to imitate what he had seen among the Egyptian priests, but that he had contemplated the formation of a society, which should aim at the welfare of the whole human family, cannot be proved. He must have been short-sighted indeed, not to have perceived the impossibility of carrying through such a plan merely in one great nation. Whenever a secret society begins to exert a marked influence in public affairs, it excites the jealousy and hatred of all the uninitiated, who soon grow suspicious of any thing of the kind, and because they are excluded from it, become its opposers. If, in addition to this, such a society is also distinguished by certain manners and customs, in which it very evidently lays claim to higher perfections than ordinary men possess, and begins to throw all others into a humiliating shade, however just its claim, it unavoidably incurs the displeasure of all the uninitiated, and transforms them into irreconcilable enemies. Now this was actually the case with the Pythagoreans, for there were many things striking and peculiar in their mode of life,† and in the sequel this institution soon

*

Comp. Griechenlands erste Philosophen, S. 328, and the same author's Geist der speculativen Philosophie, Th. I. 77—79. Tiedemann, Geist der spec. Philos., Th. I. Seite 81 ff.

learned the truth of these remarks. Pythagoras himself lived to see its destruction, in those states, in which, and for whose government, education, and happiness, it had been established, and to experience the ill effects of such institutions upon the multitude; for, notwithstanding their great incapacity of governing themselves, they can with justice require all those who are to govern them, to regulate their conduct by well known principles, and object to being forced slavishly to submit to authoritative decisions, which are calculated to excite suspicion from the very fact of their emanating from impenetrable darkness, and must ever be hateful to a people not accustomed to the most capricious despotism. Should any one, therefore, admit that Pythagoras actually gave his plan that great universality, of which we are seeking to find an example, for which, however, there is not the least historical evidence, he would, on account of the impossibility of such a.. project's being carried into effect, be obliged, at the same time, to accuse this philosopher of a great want of sagacity; such a want, indeed, as could not have existed in a mind of such penetration as that, evinced by this institution, even upon the supposition that it was confined to the modest limits of a single state, or a few small nations.*

§ 73. But though philosophy before Socrates, with the exception of what has been said of the Pythagorean institution, exerted but little beneficial influence upon the hu

* [Pythagoras has been very unjustly underrated in Adelung's Geschichte der Philosophie für Liebhaber, I. 261 ff. This author considers him as an ambitious juggler, fond of power, who, like a Jesuit-general, by means of his secret order, aimed at obtaining the universal control of Greece. Barthelemy, on the other hand, represents him in a very fanciful point of view, and paints the Pythagorean union in fine colors, Voyage d' Anacharsis, Tom. VI. chap. 75. [Travels of Anacharsis the younger in Greece, translated from the French, 8 vols., the last consisting of maps, plans, views, and coins, 1793. TR.] Wedekind, however, der Pythagoräische Orden, Obscurantenvereine u. s. w., L. 1820, S. 1-57, especially S. 40 ff., thinks, that, after all, Barthelemy has not washed away the complaint of deception respecting Pythagoras; that his order must be considered as having been a kind of secret Jesuitism; and that Pythagoras inspired his pupils with his own spirit.]

man race, yet, under the guidance of this excellent man, she became in a measure the benefactress of society; she began to leave the heavens, where she had hitherto lived in pursuit of empty dreams, and, entering the habitations of men, to fill them with light and happiness. It would be superfluous for me to speak particularly of the merits of this man in this respect, or describe the wise, disinterested, and unwearied activity, with which he endeavored both to teach his countrymen and set them a virtuous example, while he devoted all his powers to the promotion of the public good. Ancient and modern writers have done him such justice as the most venerable of all the Grecian sages, and said so much that is good and excellent respecting his religious views, his virtue and active philanthropy, as to render it needless for me to attempt the justification of my opinion in detail, when I say, that I consider him as having accomplished more towards enlightening and improving mankind than all the philosophers of Greece. Not only did he effect much in his native country, directly, but he was also at the head of a school, from which went forth wise men, who from him had learned, at least, to approach nearer to human life in their investigations, than had hitherto been done;-who had begun to contemplate man more closely, and select him, with his condition, faults, faculties, and relations, as the object of their inquiries; and, finally, to consider it as the business of philosophy, if she would be of any real utility, to employ herself chiefly in those important matters that relate to morality and happiness.

Even this excellent man, however, influenced as he ever was by an unwearied zeal in doing good, and deterred neither by a weight of poverty nor the derision of the ignorant, by the hatred of his nation nor the poisoned chalice, from laboring with all his powers for the good of his fellow citizens;-even this man, notwithstanding the extraordinary talents with which he was gifted, and the warmth of his heart in the cause of human happiness, confined his benevolent views entirely to the narrow limits of his own native country. His plan,