faith during life, and their confident hope in death. In these sepulchral tokens we find the earliest visible utterance of the prevalent reverence for the cross. The precise date of these expressive symbols cannot be ascertained; but the earliest of them are closely connected in time with Tertullian, and other Christian writers of his age. We thus see, that the line of continuity in our historical sketch is duly preserved. The plate given in p. 424 shows different crosses of both the Greek and Latin form taken from the catacombs, and reaching back to the first centuries. The symbolical element in these crosses went on gradually increasing year after year. IHCOYC of power, by that soul's steadfast gazing on the cross. The word salus, salvation, written at the bottom, embodies the import of the whole. A SALVS ХРЄІСТОС VERY EARLY SYMBOLICAL CROSS. This may be exhibited in the anchor cross as given in the cut, in which an old-established symbol is turned to Christian purposes; forming, in the shape of a cross, a kind of twofold emblem, denoting refuge and safety. This symbol occurs, in the earliest ages of our religion, on gravestones, and, at a later period, on gems; sometimes, as in the instance before the reader, bearing the name Jesus Christ, and having as here two fishes, or only one. The fishes are understood to be symbolical of the 'fisher of men,' and, indeed, of Christians generally, who, as being immersed in water, on assuming the Christian name, took a kind of pleasure in playfully describing themselves as 'fish.' Another reason assigned for the adoption of this emblem is, that the Greek word for fish. namely ichthus, contains the initial letters of Jesus Christ, Son of God, - Saviour. The power of expression is carried still further in the ensuing specimen, belonging to the first centuries, in which, besides other symbols already explained, the cross is represented as having conquered 'the old serpent,' who is bound to its trunk, and who, yet retaining the will to injure the human soul represented by the dove, is deprived EARLY SYMBOLICAL CROSS. The dove, as in the above figure, which is also an image of the resurrection, -the import being derived from the bird which announced a new heaven and a new earth to Noah, is found, as well as the fish, representing our Lord, in very early remains of the catacombs, which probably take precedence of figures of the cross, and thus aids in preserving a continuous line of symbolical writing from the first years of the second century down to modern times. The triumphant and blissful character of the cross is well shown in the engraving that follows, of a 'starry cross,' which is taken from a mosaic at Ravenna, of the sixth century: Placed in the midst of the stars of heaven, this cross rests on the same base, salus, followed by the word mundi, salvation of the world. Its outer circle is surrounded by a circle of resplendent stones. On the top is the Greek word ichthus, meaning our Lord, which has been recently found on a funeral marble, with the word zonton adjoined, making the entire equivalent to Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour of living (men). At an earlier period, however, than this, the cross had become the emblem of victory; being adopted by Constantine, as shown by this copy of a medal, struck in the days of The lesson of the miracle was completed by the appearance to him at night, in a dream, of Jesus, who, with a cross in his hand, of the shape already seen, commanded him to make a royal standard of a similar configuration. This was accordingly done; and hence the Labarum. We are not here required to discuss the merits of this story. How much soever of the legendary or even of the fictitious it may contain, doubtless an occasion there was in the life of Constantine, which led him to adopt the Christian religion, and, with that religion, its consecrated symbol, the cross. Did this not appear from the fact, that fiction and legends have an historical import, as well as the purest and simplest record of facts, the ensuing view of the Labarum, having the image of the emperor on the obverse, would set the matter at rest: THE LABARUM. The engraving presents, between two Roman soldiers, the cross in the shape of the Labarum, and indicates the fact, that, in its conquering career, the cross had now become the recognised and solemn standard of the Roman empire. Ecclesiastical history informs us, that Constantine, while engaged in contending for the imperial throne (cir. 336), began to reflect on the mischances and failures which had befallen his idolatrous predecessors; while his father, who had adored one only God, the Creator of the universe, had been eminently successful. Hence he drew the inference, that he himself might find ready aid and effectual support in adopting the now rapidly spreading faith of the despised Nazarene. On this, he fell on his knees, and prayed God to give him light; when, as the sun was declining, there suddenly appeared in the heavens a pillar of light, bearing the shape of a cross, with the words in Greek, 'By this conquer.' SPES PVBLIC A CONS PRIMITIVE SYMBOLICAL CROSS. This is taken from a coin of Constantine's, and presents, on the top of the Labarum, the monogrammatic name of Christ; at the bottom of the cross, the vanquished serpent; athwart the face, the words in Latin, the hope of the republic. From this time, crosses became very common. When Constantine had gained the empire, the senate decreed to him a golden statue, one hand of which held a long spear in the form of a cross. The cross began to be accompanied by the image of our Saviour; and, according to Eusebius, the emperor not only caused such representations to be placed in the most conspicuous parts of the city, but, as the sign of our Lord's passion,' erected a magnificent cross in his palace. Architecture was now to undergo modification from the cross. The figure presents an outline of a church of early date, built in the shape of what is termed the Greek cross. The engraving whence our copy is made, is itself of the seventh century. Christian churches, generally, soon quitted their original model in the Greek Basilicæ, and took the figure of the cross. Churches built in this form were originally termed cross-churches. The church built by Constantine in Constantinople, in honour of the apostles, was of this description. This form the emperor is said to have produced, in order to unite in the Christian temple the magnificence of the temples of the preceding religion, and by crossing two quadrangular buildings. # ARCHITECTURAL CROSS. To the cross thus formed, is to be ascribed the grand discovery of imposing a dome on arches, since the superstructure of the round temple or part was a consequence naturally ensuing from two quadrangular buildings crossing each other. The alleged discovery of the cross on which Jesus suffered, gave an impulse to superstitious feelings and practices. Four ecclesiastical historians concur in stating, that it was found by the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great. This event is assigned to A.D.326. The statement is, that this princess was induced, when near her grave, to pay a visit of pious love to the chief place which had been consecrated by the presence of the Saviour of mankind. Aided by a Jew who had carefully preserved the memory of the spot where Jesus had been crucified, Helena repaired to Mount Calvary, and, after diligent excavation, found three crosses, of which she ascertained the true one by miracles which it wrought. Fable, thus begun, was not slow to increase. Having built a church over the spot, Helena deposited within it the chief part of the real cross. The remainder she conveyed to Constantinople, a part of which Constantine inserted in the head of a statue of himself; the other part was sent to Rome, and placed in the church of Sta. Croce in Gerusalemme, which was built expressly to receive this precious relic. When, subsequently, a festival to commemorate the discovery had been established, the bishop of Jerusalem, on Easter Sunday, exhibited to the grateful eyes of eager pilgrims the object to see which they had travelled so far, and endured so much. Those who were persons of substance were further gratified by being permitted to purchase, at their full value, small pieces of the cross set in gold and gems; and, that wonder might not pass into incredulity, the proper authorities gave the world an assurance that the holy wood possessed the power of self-multiplication, and, notwithstanding the innumerable pieces which had been taken from it, remained intact and entire as at the first. The capture of Jerusalem by the Persians, A.D. 614, placed the remains of the cross in the hands of Chosroes, who mockingly conveyed them to his capital. Fourteen years after, Heraclius recovered them, and had them carried, first to Constantinople, and then to Jerusalem, in such pomp, that, on his arrival before the latter city, he found the gates barred, and entrance forbidden. Instructed as to the cause of this hinderance, the emperor laid aside the trappings of his greatness, and, barefooted, bore on his own shoulders the sacred relic up to the gates; when these opened of themselves, allowing him to enter, and to place his charge beneath the dome of the sepulchre. From this time no more is heard of the true cross. The early apologists of Christianity endeavoured to repel the imputation of the disciples being worshippers of the cross, which was brought against them by the Heathen, and even by Julian. Some grounds there must undoubtedly have been for Julian's charge, since he expressly says, that 'the Christians prayed to a wooden cross, that they made the figure of the same on the forehead, placed it at the entrance of their houses, and that they forsook the ancient gods, and had turned to the dead Jew.' How true and reasonable soever was the defence which the defenders of Christianity put forth, yet it cannot be denied that in the fourth, and particularly from the fifth century, a reverence for the cross arose which bordered on fanaticism, and was accompanied by very superstitious practices. This has remained at least unmitigated in some churches, to the great detriment of the true purposes of the gospel. Easy would it be to cite instances of the gross credulity and low superstition which have been displayed in connection with the cross. Nor can the heads of the church be held blameless. In their desire to enforce the claims of the gospel, they were led to speak of the virtues of the cross in a manner false and extravagant in itself, and which the ignorant would easily misunderstand and grossly pervert. The eloquent Chrysostom, by the indulgence which he gave to his feelings and imagination, must be held to no small extent accountable for these evils. Ephraem the Syrian is among those who have spoken most extravagantly on the subject. In a discourse, he declares,-'The cross is the hope of Christians, the resurrection of the dead, the staff of the lame, the comfort of the poor, the charm of the rich, the stumbling-block of the high-minded, and triumph over the demons. The cross is the teacher of virtue, the treasure of the destitute, the father of the orphan, the coun sellor of the just, the guardian of the young, the head of the adult, the crown of the aged, the hope of the despairing, the helm of the mariner, a haven in storms, and a wall to the besieged. The cross is a light to those who sit in darkness, the ornament of kings, the freedom of slaves, the wisdom of masters, the philosophy of barbarians, the safety of the globe.' In this way does he proceed to speak at length of the cross, employing language which he himself might more or less distinctly intend as figures of speech, but which, in each case, others in the lapse of time, and with the thickening of the dark shades that came over men's minds, would but too certainly convert into substantive realities and religious truths. This process of corruption would proceed rapidly in periods when men were generally inclined to carry respect for real or false relics, to the awful excess of making them objects of a species of worship. The cross, accordingly, was used for amulets and talismans. Chrysostom (Hom. xi.) declares, That very wood on which the sacred body was stretched and crucified, is sought after with incredible ardour. Accordingly, many persons of both sexes, procuring ever so small a splinter of it, encase it in gold, and suspend it from their neck.' To travellers, the cross they wore served as an altar at which they prayed at certain hours. Indeed, superstition at length converted wooden crosses into objects of worship. CRUSADER'S CROSS. The stream of corruption overflowed in the zealous efforts of the crusaders, commenced in the eleventh century, for the recovery of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the hands of the Mohammedans. Then was the cross for a long series of years seen flaunting on the banners of embattled armies, and borne on the shoulders of valiant knights, who, when they came back to their homes, were on their stone effigies placed with their legs across, to denote that they had in their lifetime had the high merit of having fought under the ensign of the cross, and against that of the crescent. And on his breast a bloodie crosse he bore, The influence of the cross on the shape of churches has already been spoken of. Wher ever Druidical monuments were found, they were supposed to be purified from the contamination of Heathenism, by being carved with the figure, or altered in the shape, of the cross. In England, crosses were erected before the conquest, previous to a battle or great enterprise, as an anticipatory and conciliatory offering to heaven. In the seventh century, Oswald, king of Northumberland, before he fought with Cadwallo, set up a cross of wood, and on his knees prayed to God that he would assist his worshippers in their great distress. It is further reported, that, the cross being made in haste, and the hole dug in which it was to be fixed, the king, himself full of faith, laid hold of it, and held it with both his hands, till it was set fast by throwing in the earth' (Bede: 'Ecc. Hist.' iii. 2). Fosbrooke, in his Encyclopedia of Antiquities, enumerates and classes architectural crosses under the following heads :- 1. Preaching; 2. Market; 3. Weeping; 4. Street; 5. Memorial; 6. Landmark; 7. Sepulchral; 8. Highway; 0. Entrance to churches; 10. Attestation of peace. Of preaching crosses, St. Paul's is an instance familiar to every reader of English history. Though often abused to secular ends, it was erected for preaching the gospel. It stood on the north of the churchyard. It was not demolished till the fanatical times, which Clarendon has designated The Great Rebellion.' The pictorial representation given on the next page is of a cross connected with a very important event in the history of Great Britain, namely, the preaching of Paulinus (cir. 620, A.D.), who converted a large part of the North of England to Christianity, and became archbishop of York. This cross is one of three commemorative of the event now mentioned, which stand in the churchyard of Whalley. in Lancashire. WHALLEY COMMEMORATIVE CROSS. Weeping crosses were those before which a penance was performed. A cross of this kind, called 'Mab's cross,' may still be seen (it is a very plain structure) in a street in Wigan, Lancashire. Market crosses were to be found in most towns possessing the privilege of a market. The tolls of these markets generally belonged to some neighbouring monastery; and the crosses were erected by the friars, as much as a token of their right, as for the convenience of the neighbourhood. A beautiful specimen is found in the market cross of Chichester, in Sussex, which was built by Edward Story, who was translated from the see of Carlisle to that of Chichester, in 1475. Crosses of memorial commemorated battles, murders, and other events of note. In the midst of Alpine scenery are crosses to be seen set up on spots where the traveller needs special care in order to avoid danger, or where the loss of life has already occurred. These crosses often chronicle 'sudden and untimely death,' and are in part designed to solicit prayers for the souls of the unfortunate sufferers. Crosses of memorial were built also to mark the spot at which the bier of a distinguished person rested in its passage to the tomb. The 'Eleanor crosses' were designed in honour of Eleanor, wife of Edward, in whose memory (says Baker), and as monuments of her virtue and affection, king Edward caused (1290, A.D.) crosses with her statue to be erected in all chief places where her corpse (she is believed to have died at |