be of a person's flesh and bones,' signifies to be akin to him, or to be so allied as if you were of his kin (Gen. ii. 23; xxix. 14. Eph. v. 30). Any one's flesh' denotes his kinsmen (Rom. xi. 14. Eph. v. 29). 'Accord

ing to the flesh' means 'as to one's human origin,' by natural descent' (Rom. i. 3; ix. 3, 5, 8. 1 Cor. x. 18. Israel after the flesh,' that is, Israelites by birth, comp. Rom. ix. 6).

CARPENTER is from a Latin word signifying a chariot or waggon. Hence it denoted, in the middle ages, a maker of such carriages; and, by an extension of meaning which has many parallels, a worker in wood in general.

Ac

Carpenter is one of the renderings (engraver,' Exod. xxviii. 11; craftsman,' Deut. xxvii. 15; smith,' 1 Sam. xiii. 19, being some of them) given to a word which is one of those that throw light on the early history of the Israelites. This word, Gharash, signifies originally, to cut into, lo engrave. As such, it denotes skilled labour, the work of the artist rather than the artificer. cordingly, in its earliest Biblical usage, it is translated engraver' (Exod. xxviii. 11; xxxv. 35; xxxviii. 23). That the work here spoken of was a work of art, is clear from the subject-matter. In the first passage it relates to the cutting, in onyx stone, of the names of the children of Israel, to form the two stones which Aaron was to wear on his shoulder. In the second case, it is used of Aholiab, who was divinely filled with wisdom of heart to work all manner of work, of the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the embroiderer, and of the weaver, and of those that devised cunning work' (Exod. xxxv. 34, 35). In the third instance, it refers to the same Aholiab, as an engraver, and a cunning workman, and an embroiderer.'

In later times the word came to have a more humble import, being nearly equivalent to our workman.' In order to designate what kind of workmen were in any case intended, a qualifying word was subjoined in the original. Thus we have workers of wall,' or 'stone,' meaning masons; and 'workers of wood,' meaning carpenters; 'workman of iron,' that is, a smith. Now, the nation of whom these facts may be asserted, must, in its early origin as a nation, have stood high in material culture. At the time when its language was formed, as that language now exists, the nation must have excelled in art; otherwise the earlier meaning of this and other terms would not have implied high culture, and the derivative and later import of the same terms denoted ordinary hand labour. With the English nation, just the reverse is the fact. 'Work' is the old Saxon term: whence 'workman.' 'Art,' from which we get our 'artificer,' and 'artist,' is a comparatively modern Latin

word. In this case, the history of the words 'work' and 'art,' writing in brief the progress of the nation, shows that the English began their national existence on a low platform, and rose higher by slow degrees. In the case of the Hebrews, we cannot account for the facts just mentioned, except on two suppositions; - namely, that the Hebrew language, as it now lies before us, presents the fragmentary remains of a lost literature, in which the oldest terms related to the inferior processes of labour; or that its language, as found in the Bible, represents a state of foreign and adventitious culture, whence it took those verbal indications of high art. In truth, we think there is reason to hold both these suppositions to be grounded in fact. We believe that the descendants of Abraham were possessed of no mean culture, derived from a widely spread pre-existent state of civilisation, comprising a literature, when, under an overruling Providence, they were led to go down into Egypt, where they found a very high condition of material and outward culture; no inconsiderable share of which they brought with them into the wilderness, and some of it into Palestine. Hence the artistic skill displayed in the tabernacle and its accompaniments. These considerations tend to vindicate the antiquity of the Hebrews, and their claims to our respect. The Israelites, even in their earliest known stages, were not a barbarous people.

CART, a word from the Teutonic cyran (to turn, or roll), found in the Latin and Greek gyrus, a circle. Cart is connected in derivation and meaning with car, carriage, carter, and chariot. Its root-signification shows that it properly denotes a carriage with wheels. Similar is the fact in the Hebrew, of which cart is a translation: Gagalah comes from a root that signifies to roll, and the vehicles which it describes might be rendered rollers. Hence they must have been wheel-carriages. Wheels are also expressly mentioned: in Isa. xxviii. 27, we find a cart-wheel,' employed apparently in threshing; comp. 28. In Ezek. xxiii. 24, 'The Babylonians shall come with chariots, waggons, and wheels.' (See also Eccles. xii. 6. Jer. xlvii. 3. Ezek. xxvi. 10.) That the Egyptians possessed wheel-carriages is clear from the monuments, and from Exod. xiv. 25, where Jehovah, in order to retard their pursuit of the flying Israelites, is said to have taken off their chariot wheels. The cut on the left hand of the following page is a Roman chariot, from Montfaucon. That on the right is an Egyptian chariot, from an original painting in the British Museum. The dotted line does not indicate another horse, but a tint of red found in the original. The Hebrews were also familiar with wheels (1 Kings vii. 30, 33), as employed for warlike purposes (Prov. xx. 26). Very forcible imagery is derived from the wheel of the war chariot, and associated

The word rendered cart' in 1 Sam. vi. 7, 8, 10, 11, 14. 2 Sam. vi. 3. 1 Chron. xiii. 7, is translated by 'waggon' in Gen. xlv. 19, 21, 27; xlvi. 5. Numb. vii. 3, 6, 7, 8; and ly chariot,' Ps. xlvi. 9. The ordinary word for chariot, Merkavah, occurs frequently (Gen. xli. 43. 1 Kings vii. 33; x. 29; xii. 18; xx. 33; xxii. 35). War-chariots were employed by the ancient Canaanites before Joshua's invasion (Josh. xi. 6, 9). Chariots, as articles of luxury, were a token of royalty in Palestine; and when the monarch was in his chariot, a body of men, so many as fifty,

EGYPTIAN CHARIOT.

viii. 11). From 2 Kings xxiii. 11, it appears ran before the vehicle (2 Sam. xv. 1. 1 Sam. that, as a part of the prevalent worship of the sun, horses and chariots were dedicated to that luminary.

Palestine was too hilly a country for wheeled carriages to abound there. This may explain why Joseph supplies his brethren with waggons (Gen. xlv. 19, 21, 27), in order to convey into Egypt their father and his family. The cut, taken from a Theban monument, exhibits carts of the Tokkari, an Asiatic people, enemy of the Egyptians.

It will be seen that these carts or waggons have solid wheels. In Numb. vii. 2, scq. we find the twelve princes of the tribes of Israel making an oblation to Jehovah, of six covered waggons, and twelve oxen, intended to bear the tabernacle when taken down. Whether these carriages were brought out of Egypt, or made in the desert, we have no means of determining. This is not the only instance in which a cart or waggon was employed for sacred purposes; for in 1 Sam. vi. 7, seq. we find a cart expressly constructed

to bear the ark. This, as being designed for becomes probable, that the waggons given a religious use, was a 'new cart;' whence it by the heads of the tribes to Moses were been made after the exodus from Egypt. also new; in which case, they must have We have already seen, that cart-wheels were agricultural service which carts rendered, was used for the purposes of threshing. Another under you, as at harvest-home:- Behold, I am pressed pressed' (Amos ii. 13). The whip, too, a cart full of sheaves is

In Acts xxi. 15, the term carriage' is used in a sense, not now prevalent, as denoting things to be carried. The original simply says, that Paul packed up his things, clothes, &c. as for travelling; and might be rendered, 'made ourselves ready. E. Taylor renders -'We took up our baggage.'

CARVING, with its related words carve,' 'carved images,' &c. is represented in the Hebrew by two or three words, a knowledge of whose signification will open to the reader the facts connected with sculpture as it existed among the Israelites. I. Gharash, denoting to cut into, hence to engrave, is applied in Exod. xxxi. 5 to the carving of timber,' in connection with Bezaleel, who is set forth as filled with the spirit of God, in wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship; to devise

cunning works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in cutting of stones to set them, and in carving of timber, to work in all manner of workmanship.' Whence it is clear, that the carving here implied was artistic and ornamental (comp. Exod. xxxv. 30, seq.). II. Kahlag, the essential letters in which are kahl; whence we see the connection of the word with the Greek koilein, and the Latin calare, both with their Hebrew root signifying' to hollow' or sculpture. It is used of rich decorations made by Solomon in the temple which he built, when 'he carved all the walls of the house round about with the engravings of carved figures of cherubim, and palm-trees, and open flowers, within and without' (1 Kings vi. 29, 32, 35). III. Ghahtav, to cut or hew, is applied to the hewn or polished stone employed in

erecting mansions or palaces (Ps. cxliv. 12), as well as to carved articles of furniture (Prov. vii. 16). IV. Pitovagh, which is the word rendered engravings' just above, and appears to denote the figures themselves; while the word,' carved figures,' may denote the nature of the workmanship, equal to engravings of carved work.' In 2 Chron. ii. 7, where this last word is used, we find Solomon requesting Huram, king of Tyre, to send him a man cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and that can skill to grave gravings, with the cunning men that are with me in Judah and Jerusalem, whom my father David did provide;' who, from 1 Chron. xxii. 15, appear to have been found in abundance in Jerusalem, all manner of cunning men, for every manner of work.' The carved work which probably these artists profusely executed in the temple (1 Kings vi. 18, 29, 32, 35), after the manner in which our beautiful cathedrals and parish churches were barbarously mutilated, despoiled, and disfigured in the civil wars, was broken down and laid waste by some foreign enemy, 'with axes and hammers' (Ps. lxxiv. 6). The same word is used, in Zech. iii. 9, of carvings or sculpture in stone. The execution of the seven symbolical eyes here spoken of must have required no mean skill. V. Pahsal means to cut away, and so to form an image. The word is specially applied to idols. Thus, in Exod. xx. 4,-Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image,' Pehsel, idol, that is, as may be seen by comparing Lev. xxvi. 1, -'Ye shall make no idols, nor graven image, neither rear you up a standing image, neither shall ye set up any image of stone in your land to bow down to it; for I am Jehovah your God.' The rendering in Exod. xx. 4,

'graven image,' is too wide and lax. As the text stands, it forbids all graven images, and so sets Scripture in contradiction with itself; for Moses was expressly commanded to form the cherubim which were placed over the mercy-seat (Exod. xxv. 18; xxvi. 1).

From this particular examination, we learn that the ancient Hebrews had no fewer than five words by which they denoted graving or sculpture. Doubtless these words had each something special in their original application. They may also have varied in point of age. But the facts show, that the art of sculpture was at different periods in no mean condition. These periods varied in artistic character. On leaving Egypt, the Hebrews possessed, at least, some of the skill with which they had there become familiar. This they partly lost in the troubled and warlike ages which ensued. When, however, David's success in arms, and encouragement of the arts of peace, had given scope and impulse to skilled industry and enterprise, and when Solomon's luxury had fostered its exercise, then native artists were found ready to execute works of high merit; in which, however, it was judged advisable to procure the aid of the superior talent and taste of the renowned, opulent, and commercial Tyre.

The astonishing remains of ancient Egypt, in the ruins of temples, and palaces, and tombs, give us peculiar opportunities for approaching in some degree to the artistic effects produced by the ancient Hebrews when in their happiest condition; for a very large portion of these remains were in existence long before even Joseph was carried down into that land of wonders.

Carving in wood does not appear to have been so common in Egypt as sculpture on stone, as wood was by no means abundant in the country. Still it was practised. Boxes, chairs, tables, sofas, and other pieces of furniture, were frequently made of ebony, inlaid with ivory. Sycamore and acacia were veneered with thin layers, or ornamented with carved devices of rare wood, applied or let into them.

The preceding cut represents a small wooden pectoral plate, with the subject carved in outline, inlaid with blue paint. It exhibits a monarch standing in a chariot with two horses, which are adorned with the plumes and housing that they appear bearing in martial scenes. The celestial sun is over the monarch's head. In the centre is a line of hieroglyphics, expressing the lord of diadems, Amounopth. The carving was found at Thebes, and, relating to Amenoph I. may have for its date 1663, A.C.

been sculptured on the temple. We therefore subjoin one, exhibiting Selk or Heaven (feminine with the Egyptians), in the shape of a human being surrounded with stars, the body bending with down-spread arms, so as to overshadow and encompass the earth, in imitation of the vault of heaven reaching from one side of the horizon to the other. In this posture, Selk encloses the Zodiacs, as at Esneh and Denderah. The uppermost part of the compartments sculptured on Egyptian monuments is generally crowned with the emblem of this divinity.

*

The reader here beholds a specimen of Egyptian art, which may throw some light on the cherubimical figures which Solomon had cut on the walls of the temple. The figure presents the side of a naos or small portable temple, having sculptured in stone the deity Chnouphis, ram-headed, seated, and holding in his hand an emblem of life. Before and behind him are female figures, having wings like cherubim. The probable date of the original is 1610, A.C. Possibly emblematical representations may also have

SELK, OR HEAVEN.

It was in mural sculpture that the Egyptians were chiefly rich; and of their productions of this nature, we have the most abundant remains. Marches, battles, sieges, and triumphs, form the ordinary subjects of the mural sculptures on the ancient edifices. Such scenes were at once exactly adapted for decorative sculpture, and flattered the vanity of the sovereign and the nation. Some of these grand pictures contain several hundred figures. Your eye is first attracted by the colossal hero: erect in his chariot, his arrow drawn to the head, he drives furiously on against the foe; his horses, magnificently caparisoned, with high arched neck, and pawing hoof, seem to smell the battle from afar. Compact lines of war-cars advance, and put the enemy to flight. Homer, no doubt, drew from similar originals; and the general action and story of these compositions cannot be better described than by one of his tempestuous battle-scenes:

"The gates, unfolding, pour forth all their train; Squadrons on squadrons cloud the dusky plain; Men, steeds, and chariots, shake the trembling ground;

The tumult thickens, and the skies resound.
And now with shouts the shocking armies closed,
To lances, lances, shields to shields opposed;
Host against host with shadowy legions drew,
The sounding darts in iron tempests flew;
Victors and vanquished join promiscuous cries,
Triumphant shouts and dying groans arise.'

These scenes were strictly historical: nothing was sacrificed to artistic embellishment. Different nations are distinguished by their respective habits, costume, arms,