set hard by heat.

The flue-bridge was built up within | good enough when plated out from common puddle bar, and that the cases are very simply and cheaply made, needing neither tops nor bottoms.

3 inches of the roof. The stack was 18 inches square inside. A fan-blast was used, part of the air passing under the grate-bars, and part, being heated, was passed through and over the fire-bridge.

In these several experiments it was found that, although the opening between the flue-bridge and roof for the escape of the spent products of combustion into the stack was lessened more than one-half the size from what it was when, with less capacity, the furnace had been used for heating scrap-iron, still the heat was so intense as to soften and render useless the damper rod at the top of the stack, which had previously stood twelve years, requiring renewal three times during these experiments. The conclusion drawn from these accidents was that the grate-surface of this furnace was amply sufficient to supply the accumulating heat for a length of 14 or 15 feet between the bridge-walls instead of 9 feet, thereby nearly doubling the capacity of the furnace with the same consumption of fuel.

Expensive fluxes, such as soda, manganese, &c., have been abandoned, as it has been now conclusively proved that a proper mixture of aluminous and silicious ores with lime, to produce a non-flowing glassy slag, is all that is required. This glassy slag being mingled among the particles of ore, covers and seals them from re-oxidation from furnace heat during the process of reduction. When either of these glass-making constituents are not available in the proper proportion, in the ore, ordinary sand, or clay, in the proper proportions, may be added to the lime and mixed together without injury to the metal, as the glass is readily compressed out of the iron by the hammer or squeezer.

During these experiments No. 26 sheet-iron was rolled out at the mill from common puddle bar, being found to answer equally as well for cases as well finished sheets from the best iron.

It has now been demonstrated that good steel can be made by this process from iron deoxidised either with charcoal, anthracite-dust, or coke-dust. The carbon in all these fuels being alike, and as the ash of either, along with the earthy impurities of the ore, be they more or less, may be readily reduced to a glass by a proper mixture of lime and ores through chemical analysis, and so utilised as a covering of the metal during deoxidation, and compressed from it afterwards-it follows the truest commercial economy is found in using that form of carbon which is of least value.

In the coke-making bituminous regions, the refuse coke-dust is disposed of in waste heaps and often burnt; while from the beginning of anthracite mining, mountains of anthracite slack remain standing monuments of our wastefulness. These wasted fuels by this process offer a premium for the production of cheap steel.

Any process that will not withstand the closest economic scrutiny is justly recognised as valueless in the arts; it is therefore proper to remark that the investigations at Reading and Pittsburg during the past year, although conducted in furnaces not specially adapted to the process and often amid inconveniences inseparable from experiments surrounded by the activity of regular mill-work, still nevertheless substantially confirm the view heretofore asserted, that a true commercial economy cannot fail to result from a systematic working of the process.

When it is considered that this mode of making iron frees it almost entirely from phosphorus, which goes almost altogether into the slag as explained in my former paper. That a furnace at present prices for material and labour, in which from 1 ton to 1 tons of blooms may be produced every twenty-four hours, will not cost over 800 dollars to 1000 dollars.

That a little lime in combination with ore and waste coal-slack has been substituted for more expensive fluxes and is found sufficient to supply the glassy covering for

the metal.

That No. 26 sheet-iron for cases is now found to be

That two men, in ten hours, with a 15 horse-power engine, will grind, mix, and fill the cases with the ore mixture for 7 tons of blooms.

That the furnace work is confined to charging, discharging, and firing the furnace, there being no necessity whatever for manipulating the metal from the time it is charged in the furnace until brought to the hammer or squeezer, thus greatly simplifying and cheapening what by the puddling process is excessively laborious and expensive work.

That the masses of metal, as one by one they are squeezed to blooms, may then be transferred in the heated state to the open-hearth bath, and there quickly melted along with the other steel-making material for the highest quality of steel.

When all these points are well considered it may be clearly understood that in localities as favourably situated for instance as the line of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, where Cornwall and other ores can be laid down at an average of 3 dols. per ton, and where anthracite fuel and coal-dust may be obtained proportionally lowthat blooms on a large practical working scale, nearly freed from phosphorus, may be manufactured equally as good for 18 dols. or 20 dols. per ton, as now cost from 38 dols. to 50 dols. per ton. Similarly great inducements are likewise offered in Northern New Jersey, where fuel and ore can be brought together at about the same cost. In the bituminous coal region fuel is correspondingly low, and coke-dust can be had for the freight, offering favourable manufacturing advantages.

In a few words, this process offers a cheap mode of making a high quality of metal for steel, by an inexpensive plant, enabling manufacturers to utilise idle rolling mills at trifling cost.

THE SEVEN FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY,

AS VIEWED AND INTERPRETED FROM THE STANDPOINT
OF THE TYPO-NUCLEUS THEORY.

By OTTO RICHTER, Ph.D.

IMPRESSED with the deep scientific import and significance of certain far-reaching and well-matured original ideas and speculations of my own, I have deemed it my duty of again addressing the Chemical Profession in order to submit to them for closer examination a second and even more abundant crop of valuable and interesting generalisations which I have been able to gather on the wide and fruitful field of speculative research. It may not be amiss to state here that the task set before me, and commenced in full earnest some thirty years ago, was persevered in with the avowed object of contributing my share also towards the foundation of a more rational, comprehensive, and harmoniously elaborated system of chemical philosophy. As a further proof of the sincerity of my motives and aspirations, I have now, I flatter myself, succeeded in concocting an entirely novel and original theory of molecular substitution, which promises to meet all the more pressing wants and requirements of modern organic and inorganic chemistry. It is with the aid of this latest and still vigorously expanding offspring of my private meditations, reared as it has been under the fostering care of those purer doctrines and principles which I had occasion to broach and to discuss in a series of papers under the head of my "Typo-Nucleus " Theory, that I hope to shed a bright and powerful light upon sundry vexed and seemingly insoluble questions, concerning which the

38

The Seven Fundamental Types of Organic Chemistry.

JCHMMICAL NEWS,
January, 24, 1879.

Atomic Weight Equivalents.

First Division: Electro-positive Elements or Metals.

history of our science has recorded so many stirring, but Table of Chemical Elements, with their Symbols and in their final results comparatively barren and unprofit able, controversies. Having, in the course of my speculative travels, made the startling discovery that a grave and all-pervading error had been committed on the part of our leading theorists in not sufficiently discriminating between two in their modus operandi essentially different chemical processes, I have considered it imperative on me to expose this fatal error, the offshoot no doubt of an overbold and over-hasty generalisation, and, as far as lay in my power, to counteract its evil influences and tendencies.

The two processes just alluded to, and which are constantly encountered in our laboratories, and not unfrequently in one and the same reaction, are on the one hand the process of direct chemical union by the addition of new elements to those already combined; and, on the other hand, the process of indirect chemical union by the substitution of new elements for those already combined. Now, I venture to maintain, that our chief chemical authorities and advisers, from neglecting to draw a clear and distinct line of demarcation between these two radically different methods of proceeding, have beguiled themselves and their numerous followers into the adoption of a style of writing which, by inundating the chemical market with a seemingly very plausible but really unsound and unpalatable species of sham literature, threatens not only to create a distaste for more solid work, but likewise to seriously retard the healthy growth and development of theoretical chemistry.

With these well-intentioned and, I am afraid, wellfounded strictures and objections, I shall at once proceed❘ to enlarge on some of the more salient doctrines and principles of my own system, a brief exposition of which will, I trust, enable the reader to appreciate the true merits and scientific value of my new substitution theory.

Symbols
Ha Ka Na Bag Ca, Mg, Zn, Pba Fe, Cr, Al
Atomic weights 2 78 46 137 40 24 65 5 207 56 52 27°5
Symbols Ag Pt Au Sn Hg2 Big Sha As, P2
122 75 31
Atomic weights 216 1975 197 118 400 210
Second Division: Electro-negative Elements or Non-metals.
Symbols.. Si C, Bo, Tea Se2 S, T, Br, Cl, Fl, N2 Og
Atomic weights 28 12 11 128 795 32 254 160 71 38 14 16

In commenting on the contents of the preceding table I am far from maintaining that the relative places assigned to the various elements in the general electro-polar order of grouping are absolutely correct. I can only express my regret that, for want of proper experimental data, my researches in this direction have not as yet led to any satisfactory results, and I am bound to confess that, in order to fill up the numerous gaps, I have reluctantly allowed myself to be guided by the uncertain glimmer of fancied analogies and probabilities. Thus, for instance, I am unable to answer the question why K2 should occupy the second place in the electro-polar order of grouping in preference to the third or fourth place; and, similarly, why Zn, should precede Pb2 or any other metal. But, on the other hand, I hope to prove, with the aid of a great variety of valuable experimental evidence, that H2 is really the most electro-positive of all the known elements, whereby it claims for itself the first or lowest place in the electro-polar order of grouping, while O2 is really the most electro-negative of all the known elements, whereby it claims for itself the last or highest place in that order. I am further able to prove that the members of the nonmetallic series-C2; S2; I2; Br2 ; Cl2; Fl2; N2; 02-are given in their proper order; while I think it highly probable that the members of the metallic seriesIn striking contrast with the prevailing biatonic hypo- Bi2; Sb2; As2; P2-are really succeeding each other in thesis, according to which the different kinds of elemen- the manner indicated. This conjecture derives considertar; molecules are represented as consisting of two chemi-able support, at all events, from the unmistakable analogy cally identical atoms, cemented together by means of one, which the series before us bears to the series two, three, or more reciprocally attracting centres of 12; Br2; Cl2; Fl2, the atomic weights of whose members force, my system is founded upon the polyatomic hypo- are observed to diminish as we ascend in the electro-polar thesis, according to which the different kinds of elementary order of grouping, a coincidence which, if not accidental, molecules, though likewise regarded as being composed must be the outcome of some general law, to the jurisdicof an equal number of atoms, are at the same time believed tion of which not only the series in question, but various to enclose within them a considerably larger number of other groups of cognate elements, may likewise be found such atoms than are generally assumed on the other side. amenable. These primordial, and in all probability spherical, particles of ponderable matter are held to differ from each other in point of size, specific gravity, and electro-polar energy, according to the species they belong to, but they have, each and all, this highly characteristic feature in common, that they are symmetrically disposed and grouped together in their respective molecules with reference to the three conjugate axes of space, and in obedience to some omnipotert fundamental law of atomic collocation and arrangement. Another remarkable and noteworthy feature of the molecules before us, which in my notation are expressed by the general symbol E2 consists in this, that, while they are not held to correspond to entities enjoying a separate In pondering this momentous and seemingly inaccessible and independent state of existence, they are at the same problem my efforts were at length rewarded with the imtime held to be of immense theoretical value and import-portant discovery that directly or indirectly the former ance, inasmuch as they furnish the only solid and sub- class of molecules are destined to furnish the materials stantial basis on which I believe it possible to erect a truly for the construction of seven distinct fundamental types or rational and comprehensive system of chemical philo- forms of molecular grouping, which, by their combination sophy. A select number of these theoretically indispen- with each other, are further destined to furnish a vast numsable molecules have, as a reference, been embodied in ber and variety of composite types, under which the whole the accompanying table, together with their respective immensity of organic and inorganic compounds may be symbols and atomic weight-equivalents, and it deserves systematically arranged and classified. The proper treatspecial mention that the particular order in which these ment of this subject requires that I should divide the symbols are made to succeed each other is intended to before-mentioned seven fundamental types into three convey an approximate idea of the relative electro-polar separate sets on the ground that each set owes its origin positions which the corresponding molecules are believed and formation to the aid and intervention of a distinct to occupy in the atomic edifice in conformity with the fundamental principle or agency. Accordingly, the first general electro-polar law of molecular collocation and set of types is believed to stand under the immediate conarrangement. trol of the principle of parality or physical principle, and

Trusting that this particular field of speculative research may soon become better known and cultivated, I shall now proceed to describe the general method whereby that class of elementary molecules which form the theoretical basis of reasoning may become transformed into that other class of elementary molecules which are capable of enjoying a separate and independent state of existence, and through them into that endless multiplicity and diver. sity of compound molecules, the internal structure and organisation of which still continues to defy the argumentative skill and ingenuity of our shrewdest and most keensighted speculative chemists and physicists.

40

Derivatives of Di-Isobutyl.

The authors find that the precipitate produced in the acetate of lead is very similar in appearance under widely different circumstances, and that it settles slowly. This method is extremely delicate, and a difference produced by 3-100ths of a milligrm. can be clearly estimated. The authors also propose, to prevent any chance of loss in scraping out a residue, the use of a collapsible silver-foil dish, which is placed inside a platinum dish for support, and when the residue is dry the silver dish with the residue is rolled up, and the roll introduced bodily into the combustion-tube. These dishes hold about 50 c.c. (They are made by Johnson and Matthey, and cost about 3s. 6d.) Using these methods, the authors estimated the carbon in a water, using 200, 100, 50 c.c., with the following results:Carbon in residue from 200 c.c. water gravimetric method equal o 34 per 100,000.

Carbon in residue from 100 c.c. water nephelometric method equal o‘31 per 100,000.

Carbon in residue from 50 c.c. water nephelometric method equal o 26 per 100,000.

It must be understood that the authors do not recommend the use of such small quantities of water, but the results show the delicacy of the processes. In conclusion, the authors suggest the use of the above methods for estimating the carbon in iron and the carbonic acid in air.

Dr. FRANKLAND said that every chemist must feel indebted to the authors for the very ingenious methods they had brought forward, methods which seemed to be suffi ciently accurate and delicate for the purpose intended: there still remained, however, the estimation of the nitrogen, which was of equal importance with the determination of the carbon. He would like to ask whether the condition of the precipitate in the plumbic acetate did not vary somewhat with different conditions, e.g., the rate at which the carbonic anhydride was evolved.

Dr. ARMSTRONG asked how the complete combustion of all the carbon could be ensured with the silver dish? Alkaline carbonates might be formed.

Mr. THORPE said that he had scraped out many water residues, and had never experienced any difficulty in the operation. An apparatus similar to that used by the authors had been employed by Fleming at Cheltenham College. He, however, decomposed the barium carbonate, and read off the carbonic anhydride evolved.

Prof. HARTLEY remarked that Dittmar had suggested methods for easily estimating the C and N in water residues: he absorbed the carbonic acid by soda-lime. The nitrogen was converted into ammonia by soda-lime, the ammonia absorbed in weak acid and Nesslerised.

Dr. DUPRE replied that the precipitate in the basic acetate of lead seemed to be remarkably uniform; that the water was evaporated with phosphoric acid, so that no alkaline carbonates could be formed; that although the residue from a litre of water might easily be removed, that from 50 c.c. could hardly be detached and transferred without loss.

Dr. FRANKLAND then read a communication "On Stannic Ethide," by E. FRANKLAND and A. LAWRANCE. In endeavouring to prepare stannous ethide by the action of zinc ethyl upon dry stannous chloride the authors discovered that the reaction was

2SnCl2+4ZnEt2 = Sn+SnEt4+4ZnEtCl, and that by its means stannic ethide could be prepared more conveniently and in larger quantities than has been possible hitherto. Fragments of fused stannous chloride were added to zinc ethyl contained in a flask cooled by immersion in water. As soon as the mixture ceases to fume in the air, when a sample is taken on the end of a glass rod, enough chloride has been added. The pasty mass is distilled in an oil bath. The distillate, which should contain some free zinc ethyl, is poured into water, the zincic hydrate dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and the heavy oily layer of crude stannic ethide separated and purified. The pure substance has, at 180° C., no action on aluminium, sodium, magnesium,

{CHEMICAL NEWS

January 24, 1879.

acetone and ethylic oxalate. It acts slightly on benzoic aldehyd. At ordinary temperature neither ammonia, carbonic anhydride, carbonic oxide, cyanogen, nitric oxide, oxygen, nor sulphuretted hydrogen affect it. Sulphurous acid is slowly absorbed, a crop of crystals being formed after some weeks. These were soluble in ether, and proved to be stantriethylic sulphate, identical with the sulphate of sesquistanethyl of Cahours and Buckston. The syrupy liquid, from which the above crystals had separated was found to contain stantriethylic hydrate combined with ethyl-sulphonic acid. The reaction was probably-SnEt4+SO2+0=SO2Et(SnEt30). The re

action was tried when air was rigorously excluded during the absorption of SO2; but the final products were the same; much metallic tin was, however, formed. The authors therefore infer that oxidation occurred during the solution and evaporation of the products.

The PRESIDENT said the above paper furnished us with could obtain it with facility if it was required as a reagent; a ready method of preparing stannic ethide, so that we it was singular that it should resist the action of so many substances.

The next paper was read by the SECRETARY; it was entitled "On Aurin," Part II., by R. S. DALE and C. SCHORLEMMER. In previous researches the authors stated that by the action of alcoholic ammonia on aurin, rosanilin was obtained, and a dilemma arose, that if aurin had the formula C20H1403, rosanilin could not have the formula which Hofmann had proved it to have, C20H19N3. The authors therefore again prepared pure aurin and confirmed their previous analysis. Gräbe and Caro also assigned the same formula to aurin. Zulkowsky states, however, that the method employed by the authors yields wretched results, and cannot be used on the manufacturing scale. The authors, however, affirm in the present paper that under certain conditions, which they are not at liberty to divulge, a fairly good yield can be obtained. authors have used two methods to purify aurin; one by conversion into ammonia aurin and the decomposition of the latter by hydrochloric acid, and a second by taking advantage of the fact that the solubility of aurin in alcohol decreases with the removal of the by-products. analyses of pure aurin thus obtained completely confirmed the formula C20H1493. The correctness of the formula was also proved by E. and O. Fischer, who explained the above discrepancy by showing that the rosanilin obtained from aurin was para-rosanilin, C19H17N3. The authors next consider the formation of aurin, which they consider takes place as follows:

C2H2O4+3C6H6O=C19H14O3+CH2O2+2H2O.

The

The

The paper contains the examination of several compounds and derivatives of aurin, Ammonia aurin, C19H14O3(NH3)2. Tetra-brom-aurin, C19H10Bг403. The authors have studied the action of acetyl-chloride and acetic anhydride on aurin. A white compound easily decomposed by hydrochloric acid was obtained with the formula C19H1403+C4H6O3, melting at 168°. Aurin forms unstable compounds with bases, but combines with acids to form stable salts, which crystallise well. The bodies formed with acetic, hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids were prepared and examined. Aurin also combines with sulphur dioxide to form a compound,

(C19H14O3)2SO3H2+4H2O.

Rosolic acid resembles aurin in the fact that it, combines with acids to form salts; the authors therefore propose to call it rosaurin. In conclusion the authors thank Mr. O'Shea, who has performed the analytical work in the paper. Some beautiful specimens were exhibited in connection with this paper.

The next paper was "On the Derivatives of Di-isobutyl," by W. CARLETON WILLIAMS. Di-isobutyl prepared by the action of sodium on isobutyl-bromide boils at 108°, 745 m.m., and does not solidify at 17. Sp. gr., at o°, 07088; ref. ind., at 16°, 13901 for the red K line; refraction equivalent, 63.78. The isoprimary alcohol from the