Unfortunately for the Holy See, its loss of independence and its subordination to French influence, to the exclusion and detriment of other nations, weakened the confidence that had heretofore been reposed in the Head of the Church. Again, the great number of burdensome and arbitrary levies, known as reservations, commends, annats (fructus medii temporis, primi anni), confirmation fees, and contributions for carrying on the Crusades, which now had assumed the proportions of a tithe; and the repulsive picture, drawn by Petrarca, an eye-witness, of the scandals of Avignon, to which the fullest credence was given by Villani, the Florentine statesman, and Antoninus, also a Florentine, largely contributed to destroy respect for the papacy and to weaken the authority of the Holy See. The efforts of Benedict XII., Innocent VI., and Urban V. were ineffectual to counteract the influence of these wide-spread disorders. Relaxation and dissoluteness infected every member of the Church, from the highest to the lowest; stem and branch languished, barren and dishonored.

B.-GREAT WESTERN SCHISM (A. D. 1378-1417 AND 1439–1449)— POPES AT ROME AND AT AVIGNON-REFORMATORY SYNODS OF PISA, CONSTANCE, AND BASLE.

I. DOCUMENTS: In Raynald., Baluz., Bulaei Hist. Univ. Paris, T. IV.; d'Achéry, Spicileg., T. I., p. 763 sq.; Martène et Durand, Thesaur. nov. anecdotor., T. II., p. 1073; Eorundem, Vett. Scriptor. Collectio ampliss., T. VII., p. 425 sq. Theodoricus de Niem (Abbreviator of the Roman Pontiffs, 1378-1410, † Archbishop of Cambrai, 1417), De schism. inter Papas et Antip. (to 1410), libb. III. continued under the title "Nemus unionis.," Bas. 1560 f.; Argentor. 1608 and 1629, 8vo.

II. WORKS: Du Puys, Hist. du schisme 1378-1428, Par. 1654 and oftener. Maimbourg, Hist. du grand schisme d'Occident, Par. 1678, 4to; German, 1792. Praefatio and Martène et Durand, Ampliss. coll., T. VII. Christophe, 1. c., T. III. †*Schwab, John Gerson, Professor of Theology and Chancellor of the University of Paris, Würzburg, 1858. Hefele, On the Origin of the Great Western Schism in the fourteenth century (Suppl. to Ch. Hist., Vol. I., p. 326 sq., and Hist. of Coun., Vol. VI., p. 628 sq.)

§ 269. Urban VI. (a. d. 1378–1389)—Boniface IX. (a. d. 1389 −1404)—Innocent VII. (a. D. 1404–1406)—Gregory XII. (a. D. 1406-1409.)

The Romans, warned by the disastrous events of preceding pontificates, and apprehensive that another Pope in the interest of France might succeed to Gregory XI, earnestly insisted at the conclave, that in any event an Italian, and, if possible, a Roman, should be chosen to fill the papal throne. The cardinals, after having paid the last tribute of respect to the remains of the late Pope, immediately proceeded to the election of his successor. Bartholomew of

Prignano, the well-known and highly esteemed Archbishop of Bari, in Apulia, received the unanimous vote of the conclave. This prelate, who had already acquired name and distinction by the ability with which he managed the Roman chancery under Gregory XI., after the adjustment of a misunderstanding arising out of a confusion of his name with that of the Frenchman, Jean de Barre, ascended the throne of St. Peter, under the name of Urban VI. He was crowned in the presence of the College of Cardinals, of princes, lords, and people, and not a single voice was raised to question the legality of his election.

We are informed by Theodoric of Niem, a writer whose testimony will not be questioned, that Urban, assured of the love of his people, provoked the Cardinals to opposition by the harshness of his language, and needlessly offended many of the secular princes. Hence, the French Cardinals, giving as an excuse for their conduct their inability to endure the excessive heat of a Roman summer, withdrew to Anagni, and from this place opened communication with Urban. They sent him a petition, in which they required that he should give up the pontifical tiara and the other insignia of his office, and resign the papal dignity, advancing, as a reason for this strange demand, that his election in the Vatican, at Rome, had not been free. If such was really the case, then they contradict themselves; for in their report of the election, forwarded to the cardinals who had remained behind at Avignon, they had asserted quite the contrary. Their words were as follows: On the Feast of Pentecost "at very same hour when the Holy Ghost descended upon the Apostles, we, acting undoubtedly under the guidance of the same Spirit, by a free and unanimous vote, chose the Archbishop of Bari, a man of great virtue and merit." Unfortunately, Urban, with char

1It does not appear that external influence and freedom of election were, under the circumstances, incompatible. Prima Vita Greg. XI., in Baluzii PP. Aven., T. I., p. 442, and Secunda Vita ejusd., ibid., p. 456; Theodor. de Niem, in the territory of Paderborn; De Schismate, lib. I., c. 2; Gobelinus Persona, Cosmodrom., act. VI., p. 298; Raynald. ad ann. 1378, no. 2 sq.) The freedom of election, the special object of attack, was ably vindicated by the first jurists of that age, such as Joannes de Lignano and Jacobus de Sera, doctors of Bologna, and Baldus, professor at Perugia. St. Catharine of Sweden, daughter of St. Bridget,

acteristic obstinacy, rejected the advice of St. Catharine of Siena, who, solicitous for the welfare of the Church, had counseled him to fill the College of Cardinals with men who by their talents and virtue would be worthy of so great a dignity. The imprudent conduct of the Pope gave offense to many, and even those best disposed were gradually alienated from him.

The three Italian Cardinals whom he sent to effect a reconciliation with the thirteen French Cardinals who had fled the city, were by the latter artfully persuaded to participate in the conclave at Fondi, whither those who had remained behind at Avignon, had already repaired.

A promise of election had been given to each of the Italian Cardinals as the reward of his treachery, and the three of them were not a little amazed when the election of Cardinal Robert, Count of Geneva, Cardinal-priest of the church of the Twelve Apostles, was announced. He took the name of Clement VII. (a. D. 1378–1394.) Clement, not feeling secure on Italian soil, retired to Avignon, and it was not long before French diplomacy had secured for him the obedience of Naples and Savoy, Castile, Aragon, and Navarre, and Scotland and Lorraine. The Catholic world, thus distracted, knew not to which of the two claimants to papal authority to yield obedience.

Urban, at length convinced of the necessity of the measure, resolved to create a new College of Cardinals for himself, which should include twenty-nine bishops selected from the churchmen of different nations. He also passed sentence of excommunication upon the French Cardinals and their adherents, and applied himself to the work of establishing order at Rome. Through the efforts of St. Catharine of Siena, who labored assiduously in his cause, many states and cities were induced to pass over to his obedience.

Clement VII., on the other hand, by his cruel system of extortion, punished France for her complicity in his election and the maintenance of his authority, while he himself, hav

then residing at Rome, and an eye-witness of events, testified, according to the declaration of many of the cardinals, that the election was entirely free and lawful.

ing wittingly become the tool of French policy, was forced to put up with every sort of insult.1

Joanna, Queen of Naples, who espoused the cause of Clement VII., paid dearly for her devotion. The sufferings which she endured in consequence, and which culminated in her murder, A. D. 1382, are indeed appalling. Though four times married, she left no issue, and her death was the signal for the breaking out of violent quarrels regarding the succession to the throne, in which both Popes participated. Five Roman Cardinals, who, as was said, acting under the counsel of the canonist Bartolino of Piacenza, aimed at placing Pope Urban under constraint, were by order of the latter apprehended, cruelly tortured, and finally put to death at Genoa. Several other cardinals, warned by the fate of their colleagues, fled to Avignon. Urban had placed Naples under interdict, and was preparing to reduce that city to subjection, when he died at Rome, October 15, 1389.

His death did not close the schism. The Roman Cardinals at once proceeded to an election, and chose Peter Tomacelli, a Neapolitan, to succeed to Urban. The newly elected Pope, who took the name of Boniface IX., carried on a systematic traffic in benefices and indulgences for the profit of his relatives. Each of the contending Popes anathematized the other, and, by a strange perversion of law and right, both were content to rest their claims on the recognition of civil governments, and either deemed himself specially fortunate if he secured the support of any of the great institutions of learning. The University of Paris, subsequently called the "Sorbonne," 2 was most prominent in its efforts to put an end to the schism. It proposed three courses, any of which might

1 Nicol. de Clemangis, De corrupto ecclesiae statu, in von der Hardt, Conc. Const., T. I., P. III., p. 19.

2 This name is taken from Robert of Sorbon, aulic chaplain of St. Louis, who established one of the sixty-three colleges of the university: "Collegium Sorbonicum ad commune hospitium pauperum scholarium et magistrorum in Theologia studentium." The name of Sorbonne was first applied to the theological faculty only, but at length the whole university received this designation.

3 The first efforts against the oppression of the Church date from 1381. Cf. Bulaei Hist. Univ. Paris., T. IV., p. 582 sq. In the same year, however, appeared the work of Henry of Langenstein or de Hassia (vice-chancellor of the

be taken as a basis of settlement1-viz., either the voluntary abdication of the two pontiffs; the submitting of the whole question to a tribunal of arbitrators; or, finally, the convocation of an ecumenical council. Clement VII. was so pained by the tenor of the energetic letter addressed to him by the University that he died of a malady brought on by grief and disappointment (September 6, A. D. 1394).

He was succeeded by Peter de Luna, a crafty Spanish Cardinal, who took the name of Benedict XIII., and whose election put fresh difficulties in the way of closing the schism. He had promised, while the election was going forward in the conclave, that, if the choice should fall upon himself, he would employ every means in his power to restore unity to the Church; and that, if it should be found necessary, he would willingly put aside his own claims to bring about so happy an event. But once upon the papal throne, these fair promises were either forgotten or disregarded. Benedict, by his ability and address, succeeded in bringing over to his side Nicholas de Clémangis, the ablest representative of the Sorbonne. He also persuaded the famous Peter d'Ailly (Petrus ab Alliaco) to accept a bishopric at his hands, and drew to his court St. Vincent Ferrer, the Thaumaturgus of that age.

In the meantime, Charles VI., King of France, had summoned the clergy to meet at Paris (A. D. 1395), for the pur

University of Paris and professor of theology at Vienna from 1384). This work is entitled "Concilium pacis: de unione ac reformatione eccles. in concilio universali quaerenda." (Gerson. Opp. ed. du Pin, T. II., p. 809–840. Von der Hardt, Conc. Constant., T. II., P. I., p. 2-61. The author already holds that, in case of schism, a General Council may assemble without being either convoked or presided over by the Pope. It is especially in his answers to the objections (c. 12-15) that he strives to establish his arguments in favor of this thesis. 1 The opinion given on the 6th of June, and found in Bulaei Hist. Univ. Paris., T. IV., p. 687 sq., and in d'Achéry, Spicileg., T. I., p. 776. Cf. Raynald. ad an. 1389, nro. 14; ad an. 1390, nro. 8, proposed three ways of restoring peace to the Church—namely: 1. By "cessio;" 2. By "compromissio;" and, 3. By a "concilium generale aut secundum formam juris ex Praelatis tantummodo celebrandum, aut quia plures eorum satis, proh pudor! hodie illiterati sunt, pluresque ad alterutram partem inordinate affecti, mixtis una cum Praelatis ad aequalem eorum numerum Magistris et Doctoribus theologiae ac juris de studiis solemnibus utriusque partium antiquitus approbatis."

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