bishops who represented him, among whom was George Acropolita, signed a Confession of Faith, which declared that the Holy Ghost proceeded from both the Father and the Son (Filioque), and admitted the Supremacy of the Holy See. The only reservation made by the Greek commissioners related to the time-honored customs of their Church, which they insisted should remain intact.1 1

Michael Palaeologus found it convenient, shortly after, to withdraw several of the concessions he had made, and Pope Martin IV. excommunicated him as a dissembler who had profanely trifled with the council. After his death, which occurred A. D. 1282, things again returned to their former condition; but the popular hatred which he had brought upon himself, first by making concessions to Rome, and next by repressing any opposition to them, was so violent that the people refused to pray for his soul, or to give Christian burial to his remains.

1See above, p. 605.

PART SECOND.

FROM THE DEATH OF BONIFACE VIII. TO THE WESTERN SCHISM (A. D. 1303–1517).

DECLINE OF MEDIAEVAL PAPAL SUPREMACY-TRANSITION TO ITS CONDITION IN MODERN TIMES-REFORMATORY COUNCILS.

§ 265. Literature-Character of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.

SOURCES. Cf. Lorenz, Germany's Sources of History in the Middle Ages, from the middle of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth century, Berlin, 1870. Ptolem. de Fiadon, h. e. to 1316. Albertus Argentinensis, Chron. 1273–1348. (Urstis. T. II., p. 95 sq.) Barth. Ferrariensis O. P., Polyhistoria, 1287-1367. (Muratori, Scriptt., T. XXIV.) Albertinus Mussatus, poet laureate and statesman of Padua († 1330), Hist. Augusta Henrici VII., libb. XVI.; de gestis Italicor. post mortem Henr. VII., libb. VIII. to 1317. Ludovicus Bavarus, incomplete (Muratori, Scriptor., T. X., and Graevii et Burmanni Thesaur. Italiae, T. VI., P. II.) Giovanni Villani, Statesman of Florence († 1364), Storie Fiorentine to 1348, continued by Matteo and Filippo Villani to 1364 (Muratori, T. XIII. sq.), Mil. 1729 f. Jean Froissart of Valenciennes († 1401), Chron. de France, d'Angl. etc. 1326-1400; Par. 1503 sq., 4 T. f.; revue par Sauvage, Lyon, 1599 sq., 4 T. In the Collec. des chroniques par Luchon, Far. 1824, 10-25 T. of the thirteenth century. (Praetorius, on Froissart, in Schlosser's Historical Archives, Vol. V., p. 213, 1833.) Joannes de Winterthur, seu Vitoduranus, O.S. F., Chron. 1215-1348. (Eccard., T. I., better in the Thesaur. Hist. Helveticae. Tiguri, 1735 fol.) Böhmer, Fontes rer. Germanic., T. IV. Henricus de Dissenhofen and other sources of German hist., ed. A. Huber, Stuttg. 1868. The Chronicles of German Cities, from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries, ed. under the superintendence of Hegel, Lps. 1860–70, 9 vols. (of Nürnberg, Vol. I.—III.; of Augsburg, Vols IV. and V.; of Brunswick and Magdeburg, Vols. VI. and VII.; of Strasburg, Chronicle by Closener and Jacob Twinger of Königshofen, Vols. VIII. and IX.; also in Mone's Collection of the History of Baden, Vol. III.) Zimmer's Chronicle, published by Barack, Stuttg. 1869, 4 vols. (Library of the Literary Society of Stutt., Vols. 91-94.) Gobelinus Per sona, dean of Bielefeld († 1420). Cosmodromium, original, from 1340-1418 (Meibom., T. I. p. 53). Antonini, archiepisc. Florent., Summa historialis († 1459) to 1459; Norimb. 1484, 3 T. f. and oftener; also Opp., Flor. 1741 sq., T. I. Pii II. Commentarii rer. memorabil. a Joan. Gobelino compositi 1405-65; Fref

1614 f. Werner Rolevink, Carthusian of Cologne († 1500), Fasciculus temporum to 1476, Colon. 1474 f., continued by Linturius to 1514 (Pistorius Struve, T. II., p. 347 sq.) Coccius Sabellicus, historian of Venice († 1506), Enneades s. rhapsodia historiarum to 1504, Venet. 1498 sq., 2 T. f. (Opp., Basil. 1560, 4 T. f.) Joan. Trithemii († 1516, abbot of St. James', near Würzburg), Ann. Hirsaugienses. 830-1514, St. Galli, 1690, 2 T. f.; see Vol. I., p. 42. — Phil. de Commines († 1509), Chron. et histoire 1464-98, Par. 1523 f. and oftener, revised by L. du Fresnoy, Lond. 1747, 4 T. 4to; par Dupont, Par. 1840 sq., 3 T. Fr. Guicciardini, statesman of Florence and Rome († 1540), Storia d'Italia 1493–1532, Ven. 1567, 4to, and oftener. And for the church history of North-Germany, the Metropolis of Albert Cranz. See Vol. I., pp. 42, 43.

During the pontificate of Boniface VIII., a tide in public opinion set in, which, extending over the whole face of society from prince to peasant, went on gathering strength through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Its characteristic was no longer the high ideal and spiritual tendency which aim at securing the best interests of mankind, but a tendency at once egotistic, materialistic, and degrading. Princes and people no longer regarded it as their highest duty to serve the Church, and the general interests of Christendom; those who made sacrifices in a former age to secure the success of the Crusades, to found and endow charitable and religious institutions, and to build great monasteries and churches, found no imitators during these centuries. Princes professed to be engaged in patriotic projects for the honor and prosperity of their respective countries, and their subjects, following their example were entirely given to the acquisition of wealth. The idea of a Holy Alliance between the Papacy and the Empire was but ill-understood, and was daily fading from men's minds.

These considerations, together with the many blemishes on the pontificate of Boniface VIII., will afford an explanation of the violent shock, sustained in these centuries by the papal power, the effect of which was to weaken the political influence of the Holy See, and to thrust the Pope from the prominent position heretofore held by him in the councils of the Christian world. Such being now the condition of things, it became a matter of palmary importance to determine precisely and to fix permanently the normal limits of papal power and authority, as guarantied by the very nature of the

VOL. II-52

Primacy. To solve the problem, two different and antagonistic methods were tried-one by the French jailers of the Popes, and by the councils of Constance and Basle; the other by Pope Pius II. and his adherents, who, unable to read the signs of the times aright, attempted to regain the almost unlimited power of a bygone age.

Unfortunately, the incumbents of the papal chair, toward the close of this epoch, were either incapable or little desirous of re-establishing the Primacy on a solid and legitimate basis, and of restoring religious and social order, which had been so rudely shaken during the disastrous contest between the papacy and episcopacy.

These efforts to place the Primacy upon a true and legitimate basis; to place the Church, as it were, once more upon her feet; to give every opportunity to the development of her rich resources without either attacking or restricting the sacred rights and prerogative of the Pope; to reform the Church in her Head and members, occupy the interval of time between Boniface VIII. and Leo X.

CHAPTER I.

CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH AS REGARDS HER EXTERIOR DEVELOPMENT.

Platina (Abbreviator of Pope Pius II., and, later on, Librarian of the Vatican, † 1481), Vitae Pontif. Romanor. (to Sixtus IV.), Venet. 1479, and oftener. Vitae Paparum Avenionensium, ed. Steph. Baluz., Par. 1693, 2 T. 4to. The lives of all the popes of these times are found in Muratori, Scriptt., T. III., P.. I., II. Theodorici de Niem, Vitae Pontiff. Romanor. 1288–1418, additis Imperatorum gestis (Eccardi Corp. hist. med. aevi., T. I.) Documents in Mansi, Harduin and Raynaldi Continuatio annal. Baron. Among the special works, Fleury, Hist. ecclés. (nouv. éd. Par. 1840, augmentée de quatre livres comprenant l'histoire du 15 siècle d'après un manuscrit de Fleury appartenant à la bibl. royale, T. VI.) †Palma, Praelectiones h. e. T. III., P. II., and T. IV. *Hefele, A glance at the fifteenth century and its reformatory councils, especially that of Basle (in the Annals of Christian Theology and Philosophy, published at Giessen, Vol. IV., nro. 1. The same, Hist. of Councils, Vols. VI. and VII., Pt. 1. Muratori, Hist. of Italy, Germ. transl., Vols. VIII. and IX. †Damberger, Synchronistic History, Vol. XII.-XV. (to 1378.) Cantù, Vol. VIII. (Book 13.) Schlosser-Kriegh, Vols. VIII. and IX. Dönniges, History of the German Empire during the fourteenth century, Berlin, 1840 sq., 2 div. Lorenz, History of Germany during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Vienna, 1863-1866, 2 vols.

THE POPES OF AVIGNON OR THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY (1309–1378).

Histoire des souverains Pontifes qui ont siégé à Avignon, Avignon, 1777, 4to. **Christophe, Histoire de la papauté au xiv. siècle, Paris, 1853; Germ. by Ritter, Paderborn, 1853, 2 vols. History of Rome during the Middle Ages, by Papencordt, p. 342; by Gregorovius, Vols. VI. and VII.; by Reumont, Vol. II., p. 713 sq., and Vol. III., Pt. I. †Chavin de Malan, History of St. Catharine of Siena, Pt. II., ch. 12 (declamatory). †Schwab, John Gerson, Professor of Theology and Chancellor of the University of Paris, Würzburg, 1858.

§ 266. Translation of the Holy See to Avignon-Benedict XI. (October 22, 1303, to July 7, 1304)-Clement V. (June 5, 1305, to April 20, 1314.)

Ten days after the death of Boniface VIII., Nicholas Boccasini, formerly General of the Dominicans, but then Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, was elected his successor by the unanimous vote of the Sacred College, and, as Pope, took the name of Benedict XI. Of a naturally gentle disposition, and inclined to peace, he withdrew the censures resting upon the Cardinals James and Peter Colonna, and upon their brothers and cousins, and Philip, King of France. He also modified considerably the bull "Clericis laicos." He, however, pronounced sentence of excommunication against the leaders of the late conspiracy, but particularly against Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna; and the two Cardinals of the Colonna family were forbidden to put on the purple until further notice, a circumstance which deprived them of a vote in the conclave, after the death of Benedict, who died at Perugia, July 7, 1304.

Philip the Insolent, as John von Müller calls him, availed himself of the eight months of peace, during Benedict's pontificate, to make the Holy See wholly subservient to the interests of France. By his influence, he succeeded in creating a division in the conclave. One party desired a Pope favorable to the interests of Boniface; the other, one who would promote the interests of Philip. The astute king contrived to direct the choice of the Cardinals, in the eleventh month of the Conclave, on Bertrand de Got, Archbishop of

1 Hefele, The Restoration of the Colonnas, A. D. 1304. Correction of the text of the papal decree (Tübg. Quart. of Theology, 1866, nro. 3).