science of holiness is like a picture without life." Intellectually, man's aim is contemplation; practically, fellowship with God. He distinguishes three stages in one's religious development—in the first of which God is seen by faith; in the second, He is known by reason, and in the third, beheld by contemplation.2 "The first and second," he goes on to say, "may be attained by man, but the third can not be reached except by an ecstatic transporting of the spirit above itself. The soul raised above itself beholds things in the light of the Godhead, and here human reason shrinks back."3 Although regarding the ecstatic raising of the soul out of itself as purely a gift of God, he still insists on personal effort as a preliminary condition. "None," says he, "obtain so great a grace without strenuous efforts and ardent longing."4

§ 257. Second Period of Scholasticism under the Franciscans and Dominicans.

The opening of the second period of Scholasticism is marked by two circumstances: First, a more general use of the writings of the Fathers, and, second, a more extensive study and a more correct understanding of the works of Aristotle. Hitherto, the only portion of Aristotle's writings much known was his Organon, or Logic, translated into Latin by Boëthius, and containing Porphyry's "Introduction to the Categories." But in the thirteenth century, when universities became numerous and grew into great seats of learning, besides his works on Dialectics, also those on Physics, Metaphysics, and Ethics-in

1 De eruditione hominis interioris, c. xxxviii. (TR.)

2 De contemplatione, c. iv. (TR.)

3 Ibid.

De praeparatione animi ad contemplationem, c. lxxiii. (TR.)

5 Cf. Launoius, De varia Aristot. in acad. Par. fortuna., Par. 1659, 4to; ed. J. H. ab Elswich., Vitemb. 1720. Jourdain, Recherches critiq. sur l'âge et l'origine des traductions lat. d'Aristote., Par. (1819) 1844. German trans. Hist. of the Writings of Aristotle during the Middle Ages, with additions by Stahr, Halle, 1831. Schmölders, Essai sur les écoles philosophiques chez les Arabes., Par. 1842. *† Haneberg, The Schools of the Moors during the Middle Ages, Munich, 1851. Ritter, Christian Philos., Vol. III., p. 83 sq. Art. "Aristotelian Scholastic Philosophy," in the Freiburg Eccl. Cyclop., Vol. I.; Fr. tr., Vol. I., p. 524. Stöckl, Vol. II., p. 1-305. Ueberweg, p. 153–210.

fact, all his writings-were studied and his methods adopted in the lecture-hall for scientific purposes and demonstrations. Since, however, the writings of Aristotle came into the West through Spain, and were in consequence adulterated with the errors of Arabs and Jews, which were in turn propagated among the Christians, his physical and metaphysical works were frequently forbidden. But no sooner had the more eminent among the schoolmen made a new series of translations, not, as formerly, from the second-hand versions of the Arabic, but directly from the original Greek text, than Aristotle rose at once in authority and influence, and the schoolmen then appreciated him no less than did St. Augustine, in a former age. Being preeminently the philosopher of form, it was but natural that he should be much preferred to Plato. The most distinguished of the schoolmen wrote copious commentaries on nearly all his works, thus demonstrating how highly they esteemed his writings as an armory whence they might borrow weapons for the systematic defense of theology. It is at present coming to be more and more generally acknowledged that the labors of the schoolmen materially contributed to the correct understanding of Aristotelian philosophy and the spread of its influence. Henceforth, also, but notably from the time of Robert Pulleyne, a more rigorous form of reasoning and a closer adherence to the syllogism are noticeable. The fresh energy which characterized the Mendicant Orders gave a new impulse to scientific pursuits. They produced a whole galaxy of scholars distinguished by eminent talents, varied and extensive information, and sincere and earnest piety.

1

The first great name in theology that meets us is that of the Englishman, Alexander of Hales.2 Having completed his

1"Although not creditable to these latter centuries, when the schoolmen are regarded with a sort of supercilious contempt, it must nevertheless be frankly admitted that the philosophy of Aristotle, though slightly tinctured with error, was better understood in the thirteenth than in our own century."—"Succeeding centuries did no more than exhume, here and there, scattered fragments of the old, half-forgotten traditions of the thirteenth century, and apply them to the solution of new problems to which physical and ethical investigation gave rise." Ritter, History of Christian Philosophy, Vol. IV., pp. 187, 522.

2 Summa Universae Theologiae; Commentarius in libb. IV. sententiar. com

elementary studies at Oxford, he went to Paris, where he made a course of theology and canon law. In spite of the intrigues and determined hostility of his enemies, he succeeded, after his entrance into the Franciscan Order, in securing a professor's chair at the University of Paris. Besides annotations on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, he wrote the first commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, and, by the command of Pope Innocent IV., a Sum of Universal Theology, in four parts. Adhering closely, in the last-named work, to the structure of the Sentences, he nevertheless gives evidence of considerable originality and great analytical powers in bringing out prominently the main points of his system, thus forming a connecting link between the Sententiaries and the Summists. His dialectical skill and great learning merited for him the titles of the Irrefragable Doctor and the Fount of Life. He died in 1245.

William of Auvergne, who became Bishop of Paris in 1228 and died in 1248, and was equally competent as an efficient governor and distinguished as a scientist and theologian, pursued in his writings a line of thought somewhat similar to that of Alexander of Hales.

The dialectical tendency was still more rigorously carried out by Albert the Great,' Count of Bollstädt. Born at Lauingen, not far from Dillingen, in Suabia, in 1193, he studied at Paris, Padua, and Bologna, and entered the Dominican Order in 1223, after which he taught at Hildesheim, Freiburg, Ratisbon, Strasburg, Paris, and Cologne. In 1254,2 he became the provincial of the Dominican Order, and, in 1260, Bishop of Ratisbon, but resigned this latter office two years later. mentarius in libb. Arist. de anima, Ven. 1576; Col. 1622, 4 T. f. Ueberweg, p. 185-189.

1 Opera omnia, ed. Jammy, Lugd. 1651, 21 T. f.: Commentaries on almost all the works of Aristotle (4 T.); Natural Philosophy (2 T.); Commentaries on the Holy Scriptures (5 T.); Commentary on Denys the Areopagite (T. XIII.); Commentary on the Sentences of the Lombard (3 T.); Summa Theologiae (3 T.) Cf. †Sighart, Albertus Magnus, Ratisbon, 1857. On Albertus Magnus' Natural Philosophy, see Alexander von Humboldt, Cosmos, Vol. II., p. 281-284. Stöckl, Vol. II., p. 352-421. Albertus Magnus and the Science of his Age, in Historical and Political Papers, Vol. LXXIII., year 1874, p. 485-514.

2 Not 1239. See Vaughan, S. Thomas of Aquin, Vol. I., p. 122, and Sighart, 1. c., p. 84. (TR.)

The remainder of his life was spent at Cologne in teaching and writing. He was styled the Universal Doctor and the Second Aristotle. He died November 15, 1280. For extent and variety of information on every subject then within the scope of human knowledge, but particularly for his ability as a physicist, he stands unrivaled, except by one name, in the thirteenth century-that of his pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas. Bonaventure, whose original name, as well as that of his father, was John of Fidanza, was born at Bagnarea, not far from Viterbo, in Tuscany, about the year 1221. In 1248, he became a Franciscan monk; in 1253, a professor of theology at Paris, where he obtained the title of the Seraphic Doctor, and, in 1256, General of his Order.1 This wonderful man was so conspicuous for purity of life that Alexander of Hales used to say of him: "Verus Israëlita, in quo Adam non peccasse videtur." Bonaventure, though of an eminently practical turn of mind, endeavors to combine with the mystical element speculative dialectics, as is evident from his intimate knowledge of Aristotle, his commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and his remarkable work on the relations of the sciences to theology, entitled "Reductio Artium Liberalium ad Theologiam." Of his most important works, the "Centiloquium” and "Breviloquium," Gerson pronounced the latter a rich and complete exposition of dogmatics, and recommended it to beginners in theology as well adapted to kindle love in the heart and illumine the intellect. Like the work of Creation, it is divided into six parts. The introduction is a discourse on Holy Writ, its origin, contents, and interpretation. The Trinity, Creation, the Fall of Man, the Incarnation of the Word, Redemption, Grace, the Sacraments, and Eschatology, or the last things of man, form the subject-matter of the body of the work.

1 Commentaries on the Sentences of the Lombard and on the Holy Scriptures; especially his Breviloquium (*ed. Hefele, Tüb. ed. III., 1861, with the Itinerarium mentis); Centiloquium; reductio artium ad Theol.; de VII. gradib. contemplationis, itinerarium mentis ad Deum; Vita St. Francisci, Opp., Rom. 1588; Lugd. 1688, 8 T. f.; Ven. 1751, 13 T., 4to; ed. Peltier, Besançon and Paris, 1861 sq. Bertheaumier, Hist. of St. Bonaventure, transl. from the French into German, Ratisbon, 1863. Stöckl, Vol. II., p. 880 sq. — Last ed. opp. omnia, Paris, 1864, 15 vols. 4to; another ed., after a new plan of arrangement, announced, Turin, 1875. (TR.)

The arrangement followed in the above-named works is wholly new, the plan of each being different, and neither like that pursued by Peter Lombard.

To these scientific labors Bonaventure added others for the advancement of the general good of the Church. Elected General of his Order when thirty-four years of age, he was created cardinal in 1273, by Pope Gregory X., who was desirous of securing his services in the important affairs of the Church. Bonaventure accompanied the Pope to the Ecumenical Council of Lyons, where he died, July 14, 1274, in the thick of his labors and the prime of his life. The deep and sincere expressions of sorrow to which every member of the council gave free vent, and the splendid funeral solemnities over his deceased body, were but the fitting crown of so pure and holy a life. The Cardinal of Ostia pronounced the funeral oration, and the Pope, the kings, and all the members of the council followed his remains to their last resting-place. He was canonized by Sixtus IV. in 1482, and, in 1587, ranked by Sixtus V. as the sixth of the Great Doctors of the Church.

3

Thomas, Count of Aquino,' was born in the year 1227,2 in the castle of Rocca Secca, overlooking the town of Aquino, in the Campagna Felice, in the ancient Terra di Lavoro. When but five years of age, he was intrusted by his noble parents, Landulf and Theodora, to the Benedictines of Monte Cassino to be educated. After remaining six years here, his studies had so far progressed that he was fit to enter the university, and he was accordingly sent to Naples, then a flourishing seat of learning. Here he studied rhetoric and logic under Peter Martin, and natural philosophy under Peter the Hibernian. He completed his studies at Naples, in 1243, with distinguished success, and preserved, during his six years' stay, amid the general depravity of a licentious university life, his

1 The Life and Labors of St. Thomas of Aquino, by the Very Rev. Roger Bede Vaughan, O. S. B., in two vols., London, 1871-72. (TR.)

2 The year of his birth is given by the best authorities as 1227. Vaughan, 1. c., p. 5. (TR.)

3 Not in Calabria, as both the German and French editions have it. See also Vaughan, 1. c., p. 5. (TR.)

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