of the Sicilies.

Here he received from St. Bernard the celebrated work "On Meditation" (De Consideratione),1 in four books, each of which was sent separately.

In this work, St. Bernard lays aside all thoughts of the pontifical dignity, and addresses Eugene with the freedom and frankness of a father speaking to a son, which, it must be admitted, is a liberty rarely taken with the great of this world, and an indubitable proof of the sincerity of the friendship which subsisted between these two great men. Bernard. warns Eugene not to allow the multiplicity of external affairs consequent upon his office, to interfere with his regular habits. of meditation, or to cool his love of divine things. He next draws the Pope's attention to his high position among Christian nations; tells him that it is his duty to arbitrate their quarrels, and establish peace; and then goes on to sketch in outline the exalted duties of the successor of St. Peter, which, he says, are a heavy burden to be borne by poor weak human nature. In this work, and in many private letters to Eugene, Bernard is equally frank in speaking of the abuses to which, in that age, those who wielded the power of the papacy, were liable. He instances the tendency to centralize ecclesiastical government; the numerous and unnecessary appeals to Rome, which were frequently prompted by dishonest motives; the increasing tendency of abbots to put themselves above or beyond the jurisdiction of bishops; the unwarrantable assumptions of papal legates; the insatiable greed of the Italians, and their extortions of money under false pretenses; the scandalous conduct of the Roman clergy, and the arrogance and lawlessness of the Roman people. While speaking of the tendency to centralize Church government, he administers this reproof: "Perhaps the next

1 De Consideratione, libb. IV., in Bernardi opp. ed. Venet., T. II., p. 413 sq., in Migne, Ser. Lat., T. 182-185; separate ed. by Krabinger, Landshut, 1845, and by Schneider, Berlin, 1850. Here also belongs Gerhohi (Rector of the Cathedral-school and Canon of Augsburg) expositio in Psalm. lxiv., sive liber de corrupto ecclesiae statu ad Eugen. III. (Galland. bibl., T. XIV., p. 549 sq.;. Migne, Ser. Lat., T. 193.)

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step will be to subject the Holy Angels to thy rule." And again: "Episcopal jurisdiction may as well be abolished, since no bishop has it now in his power to punish offenses against God; he is no longer competent to give an independent judgment in his own diocese." 2 Once more: "Remember that the Holy Roman Church, over which thou presidest by the grace of God, is the Mother, and not the mistress, of all other churches; that thou art likewise, not the Lord of the bishops, but one of their number."3 We should not, however, lose sight of the fact, that Bernard's habit of censuring his own age, and passing over what was good in it, not unfrequently led him to mistake the true bearing of certain phenomena inseparable from those times; hence, in his later works, he often corrects former statements, and admits that it was the duty of the Pope to take upon himself the administration of many things not strictly belonging to his office, but the neglect of which would be detrimental to his dignity. His earnest desire and the yearning of his soul is expressed to the Pope in the following language: " Would that I might have the happiness of seeing, before I die, the restoration of that glorious age of the Church when the Apostles cast out their nets, not in search of silver and gold, but to take hauls of precious souls."

4

Both Eugene and Bernard died (A. D. 1153) shortly after the completion of the work "On Meditation"-the former July 8th, and the latter August 20th, without seeing the end of the extravagant dreams of republicanism in Rome.

3 Lib. IV., c. 7. Cf. Vol. I., p. 676, and Vol. II., p. 38.

4 Lib. IV., c. 2, 3.

5 Quis mihi det, antequam moriar, videre ecclesiam Dei sicut in diebus antiquis? Ep. 238; ad Eugen. III., ep. I., nro. 6. (Migne, Ser. Lat., T. 182, p. 430.)

C-THE HUNDRED YEARS STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE POPES AND THE HOHENSTAUFENS—FREDERIC I., HENRY VI., FREDERIC II., CONRAD IV., AND CONRADIN († a. d. 1268).

Mansi, T. XXI., p. 785 sq. Harduin, T. VI., Pt. II., p. 1333 sq.: Vita, epp. Rom. Pontificum et acta Conciliar. Watterich, T. II., p. 323–748, on Hadrian IV., Alexander III., etc., to Celestine III. Raumer, Hist. of the Hohenstaufens, Lps. (1823) 1841, sq., 6 vols. Zimmermann, The Hohenstaufens; or, The Struggle of the Monarchy against the Pope and Republican liberty, Stuttg. 1838, 2 pts. John von Müller, Journeys of Popes, nros. 6 and 7. *Reuter, Pope Alexander III. and the Church of his Age, 2d ed., Lps. 1860 sq., 3 vols. Hefele, Hist. of Counc., Vol. V., p. 469 sq.

§ 219. Hadrian IV. (A. D. 1155-1159)-Alexander III. (A. d. 1159-1181)-Frederic I. and Henry II., King of EnglandThomas à Becket.

Hadrian IV. succeeded in suppressing the spirit of demagogism in Rome. The Pope, whose family name was Richard Breakspeare, was a native of England, and the only one of that nation that ever sat upon the papal throne.

Driven from home by the harsh treatment of his father, who did menial service in the monastery of St. Alban's, he wandered up and down the country for some time, after which he passed over to France, and entered the monastery of St. Rufus, near Arles. As a monk, he was distinguished by close application to study, regularity of life, a noble and generous disposition, and eminent talents. These qualities soon raised him to the abbacy; but the monks shortly grew tired of him, and falsely accused him to Pope Eugene III., who, divining the real motives of Breakspeare's enemies, called him to Rome, and created him cardinal-bishop of Albano. He was next sent as papal legate to the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and while in this embassy showed such capacity for public business, and acquired so great a reputation as a diplomate, that on his return to Rome, whither an account of his labors had preceded him, he was unanimously called to the papal throne. Arnold of Brescia was at this time in Rome, devising plans for the revival of Pagan principles and the restoration of a republican form of government. To enter a contest, with any hope of success,

against popular passion, on the one hand, and royal encroachments on the other, was a task of no ordinary difficulty; but the poor English exile, who had been so providentially led, step by step, to the most exalted dignity in Christendom, was quite equal to it, and, as the event proved, capable of maintaining the glorious traditions of the See of St. Peter.

He at once employed the most vigorous measures for the restoration of order; and by laying Rome under interdict, struck an effective blow at those who were disturbing the peace of the city. The senators, yielding to the representations and appeals of both clergy and people, broke off their connection with Arnold of Brescia, and made their submission to the Pope.

Arnold found refuge and protection with some Italian nobles; but Frederic Barbarossa, who had lately come into Italy, and who, being imbued with the old ideas of absolute imperialism, detested the wild republican dreams of the Romans, demanded the surrender of Arnold, and, having got possession of him, handed him over to the papal authorities.1 The Prefect of Rome sentenced him to be hung, after which he was burnt, and his ashes flung into the Tiber (A. D. 1155).

With Frederic commences the struggle between the Papacy and the house of Hohenstaufen, which continued for a whole century. The expedition against Rome, which Conrad III. had contemplated for the restoration of imperial rights and prerogatives now almost forgotten, was warmly taken up by Frederic, who had already led an army into Italy, and systematically prosecuted until a final adjustment was reached. After having been crowned King of Lombardy, at Pavia, Frederic proceeded on his way to Rome; but the Pope, suspicious of his ulterior intentions, sent an embassy to meet him. They shortly returned, with assurances from Frederic that the Pope's person would be respected and his property protected. Hadrian immediately set out to meet him, and coming up with him at Sutri, a difficulty was raised concerning a question of etiquette. According to a custom,

1Cf. the just appreciation of Arnold by Raumer, in his Hist. of the Hohenstaufens, Vol. II., p. 31.

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sanctioned by the usage of former emperors and kings, and prescribed by German law, the king should have held the Pope's stirrup, as a mark of respect to his dignity. This Frederic indignantly refused to do, and the Pope in consequence denied him the usual courtesy of the kiss of peace.

After a short discussion on the matter, the king yielded, but would not listen to the extravagant pretensions of the Roman nobles, who wished him to receive the imperial dig nity at their hands.

Frederic was now crowned Emperor by the Pope. His professions were fair enough, but his ambitious designs did not escape the more penetrating of those who came in contact with him. It was evident that he intended to use the Pope to further his own projects, and to avail himself of the venerable prestige which attached to the Holy See, to establish a universal political monarchy.

When King William II., on the death of Roger (A. D. 1154), seized upon the kingdom of Sicily without consulting the Holy See, of which it was a fief, Hadrian wrote him a letter of remonstrance, in which he addressed William as "Lord." The latter taking offense at this manner of title, invaded the Papal States, shut the Pope up in Benevento, and compelled him to conclude an ignominious peace (A. D. 1156). By this treaty, the Pope absolved William from sentence of excommunication which had been pronounced against him at the opening of the war, invested him with Sicily and Apulia, and acknowledged him as the lawful lord of all the provinces and cities that had fallen into his hands since the death of Roger. William, on his part, promised to remain at peace with the Holy See, and to pay tribute for all provinces held in fief; but he forbade any one to appeal to Rome without hav

·1 Helmoldii Chronicon Slavor., lib. I., c. 80. Otto Frising. II. 21. Baron, ad an. 1155, nro. 4. Cf. Raumer, Vol. II., p. 39 sq. We read in the Suabian Mirror: "The Pope receives both swords from God; the spiritual he retains, and the temporal he hands over to the emperor. When he mounts his white charger, the emperor shall hold his stirrup." Articles 9 and 10 of the preface. The Saxon Mirror also says: "The Pope will also, on certain occasions, ride on a white horse, when the emperor shall hold his stirrup, that the saddle may not turn over."