"Summus erat Pastor tunc temporis urbe Johannes,

Cfficio affatim clarus sophiaque repletus."1

The first care of John X. was to put things to right in Italy. As a preliminary step toward the accomplishment of this purpose, he consecrated Berengarius of Friuli, Emperor (A. D. 915). He next secured an alliance for him with the Greek Emperor and with the princes of Italy. Having thus established friendly relations among all the princes, he united their forces for a desperate assault upon the Saracens, who were again overrunning Italy. Placing himself at the head of the combined army, he went forth to meet the enemy, and came up with him on the banks of the Garigliano. The Saracens fought with their characteristic daring and gallantry; but, being unable to withstand the resolute courage of the Christian army, were forced to give way on all sides. Their army was annihalated, their stronghold on the banks of the Garigliano taken and destroyed (A. D. 916), and their power in Italy broken.

.

The remaining days of this Pope were spent in consulting and providing for the interests of the Church. His answer to Harvey, Archbishop of Rheims, who, in the year 916, asked his advice as to how such of the newly-converted (A. D. 912) Normans as had lapsed into idolatrous practices should be treated, is characteristic of the man. He instructed the Archbishop not to enforce the rigor of the canons, as they, being young in the faith, could not bear what those of more mature years would joyfully accept, but to use forbearance, lest excessive strictness might entirely drive away these neophytes from the Church.

Upon the death of Theodora, John manifested a disposition to free himself from the degrading dependence to which he had been subjected. But Marozia, who was still powerful and in possession of the Castle of St. Angelo, had him cast into prison and put to death (A. D. 928). This woman had married Guido, Margrave of Tuscany, the conqueror of her former husband, Alberic, Duke of Camerino. She was led

1Conf. Duret, in Kopp's Hist. Papers of Luzerne, Vol. I., n. 3, year 1854. Livrani, Giovanni da Tossignano (X), Macerata, 1859.

to take the life of Pope John, because he had entered into negotiations with Hugh of Provence, in the year 926, for the liberation of Italy, and especially of the Romans, who were groaning under the shameful servitude of these vicious

women.

At the close of the short pontificate of Leo VI. († a. D. 929), a man distinguished for his energy in enforcing ecclesiastical discipline and for his earnest efforts to raise the standard of morality, the papal throne was filled, for a brief period, by Stephen VII. (VIII.), who was probably the creature of Marozia. Upon his death, this woman had her son by her first husband, Alberic, elected Pope. He is known by the name of John XI. (A. D. 931-936), and was, throughout his whole reign, subject to the baneful influence of either his mother or brother. In the year 932, after the death of Guido, the wily Marozia became the wife of Hugh of Provence, upon whose head she succeeded in placing the crown of Italy. Hugh, after a time, fancied that his power was sufficiently established to warrant him in aspiring to the imperial crown. The Pope had, indeed, requested him to accept it; but Alberic the Younger, a brother of Pope John, protested against this assumption as an infringement upon his patrimonial rights, took up arms in his own defense, defeated his stepfather, Hugh, and shut his mother up in prison. Having thus established his power (A. D. 932-954) as "Princeps Romae," or Prince and Senator of Rome, he cast the Pope, his brother, into prison, in the Castle of St. Angelo, where he kept him shut up for three years together, and, during this time, assumed and exercised all authority, both temporal and spiritual. The popes who reigned under him were nearly all men of integrity and blameless lives. Such were Leo VII., Stephen VIII. (IX.) (A. D. 939), Marinus II. (A. D. 943– 946), and Agapetus II. (a. D. 946–955). But, notwithstanding their personal worth, they were, all the same, obliged to submit to a degrading and vexatious dependence. A change in the political condition of Upper Italy finally gave hope that the papacy might again rise to its pristine authority and honor.

The vassals of Hugh, but particularly Berengarius, Mar

grave of Ivrea, grew daily more impatient of his rule, till finally their protests became so urgent and imperative that he thought it best to again retire to his hereditary kingdom of Provence (A. D. 946). Before going, however, he conferred the crown of Italy upon his son, Lothaire, who, though only eighteen years of age, had already been associated with his father in the government of the kingdom, and was espoused to Adelaide, daughter of Rudolph II. of Burgundy.

Lothaire did not live long to enjoy the honors and bear the burdens of royalty. He died in 950, and was succeeded by Berengarius and his son, Adalbert, both of whom were elected and crowned Kings of Italy at Pavia.

The young widow of Lothaire took refuge in the Castle of Canossa to escape the hard treatment of Berengarius, who tried every means to force her to accept the offer of his son's hand.

From the beginning of the reign of Henry I. of Saxony, surnamed the Fowler, the affairs of Germany, whether in the · political or ecclesiastical domain, had been in a most satisfactory condition; and the accession of Otho I. gave still better promise for the future. Having been invited by Adelaide, who was still shut up in the Castle of Canossa, to come to her rescue, he crossed the Alps (A. D. 951), at the head of an army, raised the seige of Canossa, drove Berengarius out of Italy, assumed the government of the kingdom of Lombardy, and sued and won the fair Adelaide (January 6, 952). At the Diet of Augsburg, held in the year 952, Berengarius consented to accept Italy from Otho as a fief of the German Empire; but having, on his return, raised the standard of revolt, he was shortly overcome and taken prisoner to Bamberg, in Bavaria, where he died (A. D. 966).

Otho was acknowledged King of Italy by a diet held at Milan, and was crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. He was then invited to Rome by the Pope, declared Emperor, and again crowned (A. D. 962) and anointed.

In the year 956, Octavian, a youth only eighteen years of age, the son of Alberic, Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Marozia, succeeded, through the influence of his faction, in having himself raised to the papal throne. The custom, now

common with popes, of changing their baptismal name upon their accession, into one more ecclesiastical in form, was first introduced by John XII. His pontificate lasted till the year 964.1

Though young in years, this unworthy occupant of the papal chair was old in profligacy, and brought disgrace upon his exalted office by his many vices and shameful excesses. But the Church, then in a most humiliating state of bondage, can not be made responsible for the outrageous conduct of this young debauchee. It is a little singular that one who, by his wicked life, had done all in his power to bring discredit upon the Church and Holy See, should have been himself the unconscious instrument in restoring the honor of both.

C.-THE PAPACY AFTER THE RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE.

§ 188. The Popes under the Saxon Emperors.

(BOTH SAXON AND FRANKISH EMPERORS FREQUENTLY CLAIMED THE RIGHT OF TAKING PART IN THE ELECTION OF POPES.)

†Contzen, The Historiographers of the Saxon Emperors, their Lives, and Works, Ratisbon, 1837. *Giesebrecht, Hist. of the German Emperors, Vol. I., p. 189 sq. Höfler, German Popes. Hock, Gerbert, or Pope Sylvester II., Vienna, 1837. Hefele, Contributions, etc., Vol. I., p. 253 sq. †Damberger, Synchronistical Hist., Vol. V. †Floss, Papal Elections under the Othos, Freiburg, 1858. Zöppfel, Papal Elections from the 11th to the 14th cent., Göttg. 1872.

In the very midst of those clouds which overhung the Christian world, and had brought on so deep a night of darkness, both Church and State took the first steps toward an amelioration of their condition.

Charles IV., surnamed the Simple († A. D. 923), King of the West Frankish Empire, made over to Rollo, the most skillful and daring of all the Norman chiefs, the province of Neustria (ever since called Normandy), in fee-simple, and that of Britany conditionally. Rollo bound himself by treaty (A. D. 911) to embrace, together with his countrymen, the Christian religion on becoming the vassal of Charles. He was baptized under the name of Robert, by Franco, Archbishop of

1 Conf. Aschbach's Eccl. Cyclopaedia, Vol. IV., p. 294–296.

Rouen, who had formerly gone on an embassy of peace to his court, and shortly after married the royal princess Gisela. The country which he had conquered was indeed wild and desolate, but this did not prevent him from giving his utmost care to its government; and the wisdom and efficiency which he exhibited in the execution of his trust merited for hir the love and gratitude of the inhabitants. From this time forward, Robert and his successors protected the frontiers of the West-Frankish Empire from invasion by the Normans. Thus protected from external enemies, religion flourished within its borders, and there shortly arose the great and learned congregation of Clugny, destined in future time to do so much for the glory of the Church.

Christianity beautified and ennobled all that was strong and energetic in the Norman character; and it was to the efforts of the Normans, who became the most zealous propagators of the Gospel, that every country of Europe, in that age, owed the revival of the Christian religion and the spread of Christian sentiments. They carried the weight of their influence and the power of their example into France, with which they constantly maintained intimate relations; into Italy, where a descendant of Rollo established a colony of Normans; into England, where William the Conqueror ascended the throne; and even into distant Russia, which owes not only its religious and political characteristics to their genius and zeal, but even its very name to one of their leaders. It was called Ruriscia, or Russia, from Rurick, the bold Varangian chief, who came originally from Scandinavia.1

In Germany, the power of the nobles was constantly on the increase, and that of the King on the decline. What was lost by the latter was gained by the former, and so powerful did they become that even the royal commissioners, from fear of

1 1 Rurik, having been invited by the Slaves of Novgorod to come and rule over them, crossed over the Baltic from Scandinavia, accompanied by his brothers Sindf and Truvor, at the head of a small army, took possession of the country to the south of the Gulf of Finland, Lakes Ladoga, Onega, and Beloe, in 861 or 862, and laid the foundation of a monarchy. His brothers dying without. issue, their principalities were united to Novgorod by Rurik. See Cantu's Uni-versal History, and the art. Rurik, in Chambers' Cyclopaedia. (TR.)