vehemence of the French theologians and the irritation of Charlemagne, whose proposed match between the princess. Rothrud and Constantine, the son of Irene, had been rejected by the latter, gave point and emphasis to this theological treatise.

Owing either to the faulty translation of the Conciliar Acts or to the omission of a negative particle1 by an oversight of the copyist, the following blasphemous utterance was attributed to the Nicene Fathers: "I bestow service or adoration on images of the saints even as on the Divine Trinity;" whereas the council had been specially careful to distinguish between the reverence due to images and the adoration to be given to God alone (ή κατα λατρείαν προςκύνησις).

Thus misled, the three hundred bishops who assembled at the Council of Frankfort, summoned by Charlemagne, A. D. 794, to consider the errors of Adoptionism, decided against the veneration, while allowing the use of images.2

"colendus," but not the creature. 3. The saints are but "venerandi," and only an "opportuna veneratio" must be rendered to them. 4. There do indeed occur instances of an "adoratio" of men, consisting in a bow or a kiss; yet are these acts employed only "salutationis causa," and out of a sense of love or humility. 5. Even this kind of "adoratio" must not be paid to pictures, for they are without life, and the works of the hands of men. They may be retained-a. As an ornament of churches; and, b. In commemoration of past events-but all "adoratio" and all "cultura" must be avoided. 6. It matters not whether they be kept or not; they are not necessary, and it was wholly wrong in the Nicene synod to have threatened with anathema all those who do not revere images. 7. Images must not be put on a par with the cross of Christ, or with Holy Writ, the sacred vessels, and the relics of the bodies or garments of the saints. All these things, according to ancient tradition, are venerated in the West, but not images. 8. It is foolish to burn lights or incense before pictures. 9. If they be deemed sacred, then must they not be put in dirty places-e. g. by the roadside, as is done by the Greeks. Conf. the Analysis in liefele's Hist. of Councils, Vol. III., p. 655 sq. Piper, Introd. to Monumental Theol., p. 219 sq.

1They read there: "Suscipio venerandas imagines, et quae secundum servitium adorationis, quae substantiali et vivificae Trinitati emitto," wherefore the council is styled "synodus ineptissima, pseudosynodus;" while in the correct translation of Anastasius it is said: "Suscipio et amplector venerabiles imagines; adorationem autem, quae fit secundum λarpɛíav, tantummodo supersubstantiali et vivificae Trinitati conservo."

2 Concil. Francfort. in Mansi, T. XIII., p. 909. Special attention is here directed to the Second Canon, which, while approving the Libri Carolini, attributes views wholly false to the Second Council of Nice, or, as it is here

In the year 824, the Greek emperor Michael the Stammerer dispatched an embassy to Louis the Mild, successor to Charlemagne, for the purpose of renewing bonds of confederation, and with a view of bringing him over to the principles of the Iconoclasts. Louis assembled a council at Paris (A. D. 825), which, owing to Greek influence and the powerful opposition of Claudius, Bishop of Turin, rejected the Council of Nice and charged Pope Hadrian with having favored the superstition of the Greeks.

This action is all the more surprising, inasmuch as the editor of the Caroline Books, probably Alcuin, notwithstanding the bitterness with which he assails the Greeks and the Oriental court, accusing both of a lack of genuine dignity and manliness, declares repeatedly that while it is forbidden to adore (adorare), it is permitted to revere images; and that, while, guarding against any superstitious veneration of images,' the faithful should not contemptuously despise such as serve for the adornment of churches or the edification of the faithful.

After Pope Hadrian had become acquainted with the char

called, that of Constantinople: "Allata est in medium quaestio de nova Graecorum synodo, quam de adorandis imaginibus Constantinopoli fecerunt, in qua scriptum habebatur, ut qui imaginibus Sanctorum, ita ut Deificae Trinitati, servitium aut adorationem non impenderent, anathema judicarentur. Qui supra sanctissimi Patres nostri adorationem et servitium renuentes contempserunt, atque consentientes condemnaverunt."

The following passage in the Libri Carolini deserves special attention: Permittimus imagines Sanctorum, quicunque eas formare voluerint, tam in ecclesia quam extra ecclesiam propter amorem Dei et Sanctorum ejus; adorare vero eas nequaquam cogimus, qui noluerint." It will be noted that it is here implied that the Nicene Council wished to force (cogimus) persons to adore images, whereas, in matter of fact, it did the exact contrary. The canon then goes on: frangere vero vel destruere eas, etiamsi quis voluerit, non permittimus" (ad act. IV. sub fin.)

For a complete proof of the blundering-nay, even of the dishonesty-of the authors of these Books, see Hefele, Hist. of the Councils, Vol. III., p. 655-673. Their animus is frequently so apparent, that, like many others before him, Floss, in his Programme, "De suspecta librorum Carolin. a Joanne Tilio editorum fide," Bonnae, 1860, adduces a number of arguments to support the conjecture, that the Caroline Books were again tampered with, and interpolated by the fierce Iconoclasts of the sixteenth century. Compare, however, Dr. Nolte's review of this Programme, in the Vienna Journal of Catholic Literature, year 1861, n. 30.

acter and contents of the Caroline Books, he composed and forwarded to the Emperor a calm and dignified refutation of them, in which, after reaffirming the teachings of Gregory the Great, he adds new arguments of his own to establish the doctrine of the veneration of images.

The sophistical reasoning of Claudius, Bishop of Turin, and Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons, was exposed and confuted by Jonas, Bishop of Orleans,' but still more ably by Dungal, an Irish monk of St. Denys.

Some time subsequently, Walafried Strabo and Hinemar, Archbishop of Rheims, triumphantly asserted and vindicated the true doctrine relative to the veneration of images by showing the futility of the objections urged against the Council of Nice.

1 Jonae de cultu imaginum, libb. III. (max. bibl., T. XIV., p. 167, and bibl. Patrum Colon., T. IX., Pt. I., p. 90 sq.) Agobardi lib. ctr. eorum superstitionem, qui picturis et imaginibus Sanctor. obsequium deferendum putant. (Opp. ed. Masson., Par. 1605; castigatus a Steph. Baluz., Par. 1666, 2 vols.; Galland. bibl., T. XIII.)

PART SECOND.

HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII., 1073.

SOURCES-I. Acta Concilior. in Mansi, Harduin, Harzheim; besides, Binterim, Philosophical Hist. of the German Councils, Vol. III. Hefele, Hist. of Councils, Vol. IV. Annales Fuldenses, 830-901; Bertiniani, 835-882; Regino, Abbot of Prüm (†915) Chronic. 870-907, contin. to 967 (complete in Pertz, T. I.) Annalista Saxo, 741-1139 (Eccardi corp. hist., T. I.) Flodoard, Canon of Rheims (†966), Chronicon, 919-960 (du Chesne, T. II., in Bouquet-Dom Brial, T. V.) Luitprandi, episc. Cremon., Hist. rer. ab Europ. imperat. et regib. gestar., libri VI. (Muratorii, Scriptor. Ital., T. II., Pt. I., and Pertz, T. III.; also published separately, Hanov., 1839.) Wittichind, Monk of Corvey († 1000), Annal. de reb. Saxon. gestis (Meibom., T. I., p. 628. Conf. Leibnitz, T. I., p. 201; Pertz, T. III.) Ditmari, Episc. Merseb. (†1018), Chronicon, 876-1028, ed. Wagner. Norimb., 1807, 4to; also in Leibnitz, T. II., and Pertz, T. IV. Hermanni Contracti, Monachi Augiens. (Reichenau, †1054), Chronic. from Christ to 1054 (PistoriusStruve, T. I., with the continuation by Bertholdus of Reichenau, and by Bernoldus of St. Blasius, in Ussermann, Monumenta res Aleman. illustrant., T. I., and in Pertz, T. VII.) Lamberti Hersfeldensis, Chronic. until 1077, transl. by Buchholz, Frkft. 1819 (in Pertz, T. VII., and in a separate edition). Mariani Scoti, Monachi Fuldens., Chronica down to 1083, and Sigebertus Gemblacens., Chronic. down to 1112 (in Pertz, T. VII. and VIII.) Conf. *Wattenbach, Germany's Sources of History.

II. For the Greek Church. The Byzantines: Constantinus Porphyrogennetes (†959) to 886; Jos. Genesius (about 940) from 813-867; Georgius, Monachus, to 959; Simeon Logotheta, to 967; Leo Grammaticus, to 1013; Georg. Cedrenus made an extract therefrom, to 1057; Jo. Zonaras, to 1118. (See the editions of the Byzantines, in our Vol. I., p. 43, n. 1.)

WORKS: Baronii Annal. Fleury, Natalis Alex., Stolberg-Kerz, Vol. 26–36. Damberger, Synchronist. Hist., Vol. 3-6. Hock, Gerbert, or Pope Sylvester II., and Höfler, The German Popes; Weiss, Hist. of Alfred the Great, Schaffhausen, 1852; Vogel, Ratherius of Verona, Jena, 1854, shed much light on the tenth and eleventh centuries, so little studied, and so very much misunderstood. For further literature, see above, p. 12, especially the Hist. of Rome, by Papencordt, Gregorovius, and Reumont.

CHAPTER I.

PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE GERMANS-CONVERSION OF SLAVIC NATIONS.

§ 179. Christianity in Scandinavia.

I. Adam. Brem. Hist. ecclesiast., libri IV., from Charlemagne to 1076, ed. Fabricius, Hamb. 1706, transl. into German, with notes, by Carsten Misegaes, Bremen, 1825. Ejusdem de situ Daniae et reliquarum, quae trans Daniam sunt, regionum natura, morib. et relig. ed. Fabricius, Hamb. 1706 fol. Remberti, vita St. Anscharii (Pertz, Monum., T. II., Eolland. ad I. m. Febr.); German, with notes, by Carsten Misegaes, Bremen, 1826, by Drewes, Paderborn, 1864. Anskarii St. pigmenta: St. Anscharius' prayers accompanying the psalms, communicated by Lappenberg, Hamb. 1844. Saxonis Grammatici Hist. Danica, ed. Klotz, Lps. 1771, 4to.

II. Münter, Ch. H. of Denmark and Norway, Vol. I., p. 266 sq. Karup, Hist. of the Cath. Church in Denmark, transl. fr. the Danish into German, Münster, 1863, p. 1-58. Biographies of Ansgar, according to Rembertus, by Krummacher, Bremen, 1828; by Reuterdahl, transl. fr. the Swedish into German by Mayerhoff, Berlin, 1837; by Kraft, narratio de Anschario, Aquilonar. gentium Apostolo, Hamb. 1840; by Klippel, Bremen, 1844.. Böhringer, Ch. H. in Biographies, Vol. II., Divis. 1, p. 170–228. *Daniel, St. Ansgar, the Ideal of an Apostolic Messenger (Theol. Controversies, Halle, 1843); by †Tappehorn, Münster, 1862. Conf. Gfrörer, Universal Ch. H., Vol. III., p. 797 sq. Dahlmann, Hist. of Denmark, Hamb. 1840 sq., 3 vols., whose chronological dates have been generally adopted.

Christianity had been preached to the Saxons during the reign of Charlemagne, and a bishopric had been established at Bremen. The tree of faith thus planted on German soil grew up and flourished till its wide-spread and life-giving branches cast their shadow upon the neighboring country of Scandinavia.

The Danish king Harold, having been expelled from his own country, sought an asylum at the court of Louis the Mild; and in the year 822, the latter sent an embassy into Denmark to compose the difficulty between the King and the other claimants to the throne. But the embassadors had, besides their political mission, another of quite a different character. They were charged with making arrangement for the establishment of a Christian mission in this Pagan land. Hence the Council of Attigny, with the consent of Pope Pas