square. The barley being sown on the 5th of March, the top dressings were applied on the 15th of April, as per label to each partition. The intention of sowing these small beds was for the purpose of fixing my attention to the same kinds of nianures sown in the field in square rods and chains in the same proportions, as well as to ascertain whether certain salts were mere stimulants or manures, the mixed earth, in the bed being free from animal or vegetable sub

stances. If any benefit resulted from the application of the top dressing, we have a right to infer that it must be a manure; but a perusal of the following will give a better idea of their relative effects, premising that the soil in the field is a dry brown clay (not sufficiently dry for feeding off turnips upon), with a surface staple of 1 ft. 6 in. in depth, the divisions of each dressing being separated by small paths.

The above manures were likewise sown upon wheat and rye grass, and Swedish turnips, though with not ascertained results, but they were apparently similar, excepting the Swedes, which were rather in jured than not by the application of the saline manures, in consequence of their attracting the frost, which happened early in December, thereby injuring the plants more by frost than the dressing did good. It will be seen, upon a perusal of the above, that the results were similar both in the bed and in the field the sample the produce of the saltpetre in the field was superior to any, and with less proportion of off-corn; the produce of the nitrate of soda was very inferior in sample, with an enormous proportion of off-corn this proves, so far as we can judge from so small an experiment, that it is unfit for barley or heavy soils. The superior produce from the pale malt

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dust in both cases, in comparison with the highdried, justifies the idea that a large portion of its manuring qualities are carried off by heat; the produce of the charcoal was inferior, but its effect was not observable until the latter end of May, when it had apparently undergone a process of decomposition (in consequence of heavy warm rains), when it suddenly assumed a vigorous babit, but it was too late to acquire maturity, consequently it was a thin sample The superiority of the produce of the black burnt earth over the red is, undoubtedly, upon the principle of preserving its charcoal: this is consistent with experience of its effect upon land; the asbes arising from paring the surface only, are in all cases superior to the red or mere burnt earth, which is destitute of charcoal. If means could be adopted of burning the pared earth in a brick fur

nace covered with sheet iron, in the same manner that it is burnt here (in making pot mould by merely scorching the earth, from which a rich compost is prepared for strong feeding plants), it would open a new field for the employment of our labouring poor. It is unquestionable, that it is indispensable, in the common manner of burning, to have too much heat in the fires, to preserve the charcoal, alkalis, &c., of the plants burned. The effect of nitrate of soda is decidedly pernicious upon clay soils in increasing its adhesiveness but saltpetre is less so than nitrate, as is the muriate of ammonia even less so than salt. petre, and it appears to produce a kinder growth than any of the saline manures I hitherto employed. It is certainly worthy of farther trial upon a larger scale. It may be purchased, I am informed, at the same price as saltpetre. There is, certainly, an imitation of nature in the application of saline manures, or, we may enquire, how is it that various fertile alluviates, reclaimed in distant ages from the sea, are so much more fertile than the same kind of soil in the interior of the country, at a distance fiom the sea; or that sea-weed is a universal and powerful manure, where it can be procured; or, that animals fatten so much quicker upon salt marshes; or, that that they pine and die in the interior of America if they have not salt given them often? But this is a field for the investigations of chemistry. It is not a solitary experiment, either upon a large or small, scale, but a multiplicity instituted upon various soils, and in various seasons; and where the climate, in respect to distance from the sea, altitude, &c. is taken into the account, ere we can arrive at the truth in these matters so as to apply them in agriculture to advantage. I am, Sir, your's, &c., Sawbridgworth, Herts.

J. RIVERS.

ESSAY ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FOLD-YARD MANURE.

READ BY MR. WEST, OF COLLINGHAM, AT THE LATE MEETING OF THE MARTON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

(Continued.)

But I must now introduce to your notice, Sir Charles and gentlemen, another agent in this business; and that is a tank or cistern to receive what the Scotch farmers, with their usual shrewd ness, call the "essence." And, gentlemen, they are perfectly right; it is the "essence ;" and I have, from my earliest years, been astonished that farmers in this country should have been so careless and indifferent, so blind and mistaken, upon this subject. Every farm-yard ought most undoubtedly to have a tank, which should be proportioned in size to the quantity of stock kept during the winter. This tank should have communication with every foldyard on the premises, including that for the sheep; and should be emptied as often as it fills, by means of a pump and a water-cart, constructed with a box behind, which should be perforated with holes, to distribute the "essence" over the land, when it is applied for that purpose, which the greater part of it should be, in my opinion, if there is extent enough of grass-land or seeds to receive it. As to the mode of applying it, I would remark, that a good deal will depend upon the state of the weather. In a showery season, it may be pumped out of the tank, and at once carried to the land; but after a long continuance of dry

weather, it will be necessary to supply some water to dilute it, as it is quite possible to put it on too strong. I have myself done this more than once. To meet this requirement, there must be a connection, by means of a sough, between the common spring-water pump and the tank or cistern. The period for applying the liquid may comprise all the winter months, avoiding wet weather when it can be done. During the spring and summer months, it should be constantly thrown upon the heap of compost, which ought, for that purpose, to be placed as near the tank as possible. If this compost consist, as it ought to do, of all the refuse substances which I have before mentioned, by moistening it well as often as there is any liquid to throw over it, and by repeatedly turning it over, so as to expose every part to the action of the air, the seeds which may be in it will all or most of them vegetate, and instead of filling a farm full of rubbish, as they too often do when the chaff is blown into the fold-yard, they will decompose and serve the purpose of producing, not "seed after their kind," as in the other case, but something better than themselves. A good deal of care will obviously be required to bring all such seeds within the action of the sun and air; but there is no difficulty in the matter which close attention to these directions will not overcome.

Where a farm is of sufficient size, a tank should be built of brick, and either lined with cement, or the mortar which is used should be made of such lime as has a tendency to set hard. Into this tank (there should be put a pump, having its spout at such an elevation that a water-cart may conveniently go underneath it, by which means the process of emptying it will be reduced to the capabilities of a boy of twelve or fourteen years of age.

The building of this tank properly belongs to the landlord, and there cannot be a doubt but it is the interest of all landlords to provide tanks for their tenants; but where the latter may fail in an application to their landlords for this purpose, I would strongly advise the tenants to build for themselves, as the cost is really as nothing to the benefit. Should they continue their occupations, they will very soon be re-imbursed; and if they quit they may safely leave the question of compensation to their referees. But where expense is an object, and when the subsoil is an impervious clay, it will be sufficient to dig a reservoir; and by fastening the sides and ends with piles so as to keep them from falling in, this will, for a time at least, answer all the purposes of the other. In any

case, much care should be bestowed in the selection of the place or situation for the tank. In the cases last supposed the principal point will be, to fix it where, by means of a scoop, the "essence" may be at once thrown upon the compost heap, inasmuch as, where it may not be thought worth while to build a tank, it will not be deemed advisable to set up a water-cart. On sand land there is nothing for it but to build the tank as I have recommended, else all the essence would escape through the open strata below.

I will not conclude this part of my subject without a more particular reference to the value of the tank. It would be impossible for me, in this address, without completely exhausting your patience, to detail to you a hundredth part of the advantages which you would derive from duly economizing that invaluable liquid which, in more than fifteen cases out of every twenty, is now absolutely lost to you. Almost every fold-yard is

now so constructed as to purposely afford as ready means of exit as possible for that which forms one of the very staple constituents of good fold-yard manure! In general, all the rain that falls within the area of the yards, and all that which descends upon the buildings, together with a large proportion of the urine of the animals which are kept within them, are industriously hurried off, carrying away also the finer particles of the manure, into the nearest ditch, to be seen or heard of no more. And all this waste goes on, in order that the yards may be sufficiently dry and comfortable for the stock! It is not possible for one to help blushing for the ignorance which perpetuates this cardinal error! this grievous mistake! And who is there who does not see that the tank supplies a remedy for this mighty mischief? Permit me then, gentlemen, respectfully to entreat that you will, all and each of you, immediately set about building one for each of your farm-steads, and thus wipe away at once the disgrace which attaches to the carrying on of the ruinous practice which at present obtains. I could tell you of the extensive benefit which has followed the practice which I recommend, upon farms which have come under my own eye, upon the estate of a gentleman in a neighbouring county, whose agent I was ; but time will not permit. I shall, therefore, only say generally, that as far as my observation has extended, all who have properly carried out the plan have come forward to advocate it; and those whose observation has been most accurate, and whose experiments have been most numerous, have been its warmest advocates. My own individual opinion is, that, so far from any farm being without a tank, not even a cottage ought to be without one; but some simple contrivance, which ingenuity will be at no loss to devise, ought to be resorted to, by means of which every drop of liquid which possesses a particle of the manuring quality should be collected, and put on the farm or the garden. This will appear the more important and desirable, in proportion as the value of liquid manure becomes better known.

It is calculated by Liebig that every pint of urine would produce a pound of wheat; and that every pound of ammonia which evaporates from an overbeated manure heap, or runs off in the form of a liquid from below, is equivalent to a loss of 60lbs. of corn. I have myself, for many years, applied liquid manure to grass, both pasture and meadow; and have seen it on good land increase the produce very much, and on inferior land it has done more-it has greatly improved the character of the herbageand in both cases it has quickened the growth so much as to make it considerably earlier in the spring. I have seen it applied to a crop of seeds which it very much benefited, even on good land, on which its effects to a yard were most manifest in the crop which was produced two years after, viz., a crop of beans. I have no doubt but it would be equally beneficial to any other crop were it tried, but I leave that point to time and further experiments.

The quantity of liquid sufficient for an acre may be put at 1,500 gallons, or thereabouts; and if grass land be treated with this quantity two or three times in a season, it will well pay for it. The size of a tank for a farm of 200 acres would not be far wrong if it were made 7 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 5 ft. deep. I believe this would hold about 2,700 gallons, and would therefore be nearly sufficient for two acres. The cost of such a tank as I have described, with a pump and a water cart, would be from 127. to 15l.;

but it must be well understood that, to do this, all the materials must be procured at the lowest rate possible. I am quite aware that the water cart alone would cost the money, if due regard to economy were not paid in the construction of it; but that it may be done I thus show: viz. the bricks and brickwork and the lime or cement of the tank, £3. 10s.; the covering for it, 15s.; the pump and fixing, £5.; the barrel, a pair of old wheels and shafts, and the workmanship for the water cart, £4. 10s.: in all, £13. 15s. At a trifling outlay like this, part of which ought to be borne by the landlord, a considerable extent of ground, if grass, may be permanently improved every year; and, if arable, the crops may be greatly increased, and that from a source and by means which at present are wantonly neglected and wasted. As I shall have occasion again to refer to points closely connected with the value of the liquid, I shall only add in this place a recommendation to those who may have tanks, frequently to throw into them a portion of common salt, which will have an important effect in retaining the volatile salts which will be gene. rated during the process of fermentation.

Gentlemen, I trust that you will bear with me in what I am about to say-that you will attribute any warmth of expression which you may hear, to my anxious advocacy of the rights and claims of the bitherto neglected and unjustly treated dunghill. I must then, in commencing this the second part of of my subject-viz., as to the best way of managing your manure when it is made-at once, and without the least hesitation, pronounce the present practice of most farmers to be extensively mischievous, and inexpressibly absurd. These are strong assertions, gentlemen, but I will not stop without proving them to be true. Is it not right, I ask you, thus to characterize a practice which allows the essence, the most valuable portion of your fold-yard manure, to escape from the heaps which are thrown up, into the nearest ditch, and from thence into the brooks and rivers, where it is for ever lost, and does nobody any good? That it does so escape in numberless instances, no one present will deny; that it never ought to do, I hope to prove, by showing that it forms a most essential attribute in the composition of a good manure heap. Is it not right, I again ask, thus to speak of a practice which does all that can be done to facilitate the escape of the volatile portions of the mauure heap, instead of trying every means that scientific skill could devise in order to keep them?

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It might have been thought sufficient that every practical farmer must have had before his eyes almost daily, during the whole term of his farming life, the most palpable proof of the great value to vegetation of the essence of which I am speaking; for there are few farmsteads without some sort of drainage to them and there are not many cases where the essence does not overflow a grip, or in some way or other, without the assistance or even the leave of man, give the most convincing evidence that it is all-powerful in quickening the growth of plants. Not only, however, has this evidence been resisted or overlooked, but other facts have spoken as strongly and have not been heard, or, if heard, have not been regarded. In fact, whatever the evidence may have been, it has, in a large majority of instances, been almost if not altogether slighted, even up to the present time. I offer further proof of the total want of thought and consideration, which applies to the conduct of most farmers upon this subject.

Manure heaps have been carried, are now every

day being carried, and still will be carried, in spite of all that can be said about it, into fields were they are likely to be wanted; and it is more than probable that a place will be found for them in a corner, having a convenient slope towards a ditch, into which, as I said before, all the easence must run; and these heaps, when lead out again, will frequently be found to have lost nearly half their weight, and more than half their bulk. But mark well, gentlemen, this effect, disastrous as it is, has not been brought about without some trouble and expense. Oh no, the farmer has been obliged to give the manure a turning or two, in order to accelerate and increase the inischief. Let me pause here and ask you gentlemen, what has become of the difference? If you know no more about it than that it really has gone off; nay, more, if you do not know from actual experiment-which I am quite sure you do not-that what remains is so much better from being divested of something it contained before, which would have been pernicious to vegetation, you must admit that I have proved the absurdity of your present plan, as far as I have correctly described it, and that it is high time you began to make some inquiry into the matter; and if you should ever be convinced, by any process of reasoning, or by the evidence of facts which you can no longer resist, that you have, by the way in which you have managed your manure, actually lost the better half of it, you cannot fail to condemn yourselves because you did not long ago adopt a different practice.

But, gentlemen, it is not only by allowing the essence to escape that you suffer loss: a very serious injury arises to the manure heap, when unprotected, from evaporation. You will all have seen hundreds of times, the smoke rising from a manure heap which has recently been either first carried out or turned over. And what is this steam that thus flies off, and so powerfully salutes your sense of smelling, even sometimes at a distance of half a mile from the spot where the ruinous process is going on? What is it that thus impregnates the air with a strong effluvium? Why, gentlemen, it is proved, beyond the possibility of dispute, that this also is the very best part of the manure.

Observe,

I do not mean to say that no one will dispute it; oh no, for it is true in these cases, as it is in many others,

"Convince a man against his will,

And he'll remain a doubter still."

That will not alter the fact, however-and a fact it is, though all men deny it; a fact as clearly and satisfactorily established as that two and two make four.

Let me endeavour, as strongly as I can, to show this. Hitherto I have purposely avoided perplexing either you or myself by the employment of high sounding technical words and phrases. I have endeavoured to confine myself to a plain and familiar style of address, which I have thought would be more agreeable to you than the use of scientific language. I shall still do so, always choosing such terms as are best understood by us all, when they will express my meaning as well as any other; but upon this part of my subject I shall necessarily have to employ some of those terms which belong to the science of agricultural chemistry, without which it would be impossible fully to enter into the matter. cecding any further, however, I must most unequivocally declare to you that I am not myself a practical chemist; nay, more, that I am unable myself either to conduct or very clearly to explain those important processes by which scientific men are enabled

Before pro

to draw direct and positive and unerring conclusions, affecting your interests most closely. All I pretend to is, that I have read extensively on the subject, and have narrowly watched what has been going on; and although I am not, as I have just said, at all competent to prove, as some would do, by experiments exhibited before you, the truth of the principles and views which I advocate, I no more hold myself at liberty to doubt their truth than I do to oppose my own feeble conjectures on the subject of astronomy, to the sublime theory which has been laid down by the immortal Newton. I say again, then, that the smoke which is seen to escape from a manure heap in a state of fermentation, consists of certain gaseous matter, which is evolved or set at liberty during that process; and which is well known, by those who are versed in this highly interesting and, to every farmer, most important science, to constitute the vital principle of the manure heap; in fact, the gases which are thus dispersed in the air are clearly proved to enter into the structure of all plants, and to be absolutely necessary to their existence. Why, then, should they be allowed to escape?

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In some cases fermentation is carried on to such an extent, and is rendered so complete by turning the manure, and by long exposure to atmospheric influences, that the whole, or nearly the whole, of the elementaoy principles useful to vegetation of which the heap was originally composed, are set at liberty, and either fly off by evaporation, or run off below; and about one-fourth at most, it has been calculated, of the original essential material is left to be spread on the field. There may, and probably will, in appearance be much more, but it is of comparatively little value the real manure is gone, and what remains is little better than a mass of unputrefied rubbish; what little value it does possess consists of the alkaline matter which it contains. But let it not be supposed, from what has here been said, that I am opposed to any degree of fermentation; nothing of the kind: what 1 am opposed to is, the total absence of calculation and forethought which may be said to apply to the present practice of most farmers. It is quite clear to the man of science, and particularly to the scientific farmer, that in no branch of farming economy is a greater need of reform than in this. It is asserted by one of the greatest chemists of modern times, that the dead loss, as I have before endeavoured to show, from the present modes of managing fold-yard manure, is not less than from two-thirds to one-half of the value of the whole; and as the annual value of the manure consumed in Great Britain and Ireland is laid at the gross sum of thirty millions sterling, we may form some idea of the saving that might be effected were the whole process conducted on sound and scientific principles.

Great numbers of experiments have been made of the comparative effect of fold-yard manure when highly fermented, and when unfermented or but slightly so, and the most satisfactory proof can be adduced of the superiority of the latter. We have the testimony of Sir Humphrey Davy, among scientific men, given in language as strong as could be employed, that, by throwing the dung of the fold-yard together in one general mass, the fermentation which, as a natural consequence, is kept up, has the effect of exhausting and dispersing in the atmosphere the gases of which it is composed; and which, he says, are the only valuable properties of the manure. Having, then, such evidence as this, and having also infallible proofs, from chemical analysis, both of the constituents of manures and of plants-condemning

the present practice as to the management and application of manure-1 do hope that I shall be excused by the gentlemen who hear me, even for reiterating as I have done, over and over again, the same truths in their ears; and I further hope that, if any of you stand convicted in your own eyes, of having in time past, proceeded exactly in the old way, without bestowing one single thought on the question, whether or not there is a better to be found, you will now set about the inquiry in good earnest.

At present, no rule that can be safely relied on, as of universal application, can be laid down to fix the degree of fermentation which may be allowed; but without attempting to settle the point, it will not be too much to assert that it should in most cases be decided with reference to three things: viz., first, the texture of the soil-that is, whether it be clay land, a loamy soil, or of light sandy quality; secondly, the nature of the plants to be grown; and thirdly, the time of its application. As clay soils, for instance, are more tenacious of moisture, or unfriable than others, they are greatly benefited by being rendered more incohesive and porous; and, consequently, manure may be applied to them which is much less decomposed than for light land, and that simply because the undecomposed fibre of the straw will naturally separate the closely-adhering particles of the soil. On the other hand, rotten dung has a tendency to make sand land firmer and more solid; an advantage not to be overlooked by the occupier of land of this description. Again-some plants seem to thrive better with fresh dung than others do. This is the case as to potatoes; but all the small seeds, such as clover, &c., &c., which are extremely tender in the early stage of their growth, require to be pushed forward into luxuriant vegetation by very short dung, the organic matter of which will be at the time of applying it, easily rendered soluble, and therefore fit for food for the young plant.

MISCELLANEOUS MATTER.- EXPERIMENTS.-ANSWERS AND QUERIES. SIR,-As a subscriber, and also attentive reader of your instructive Magazine, may I venture to hope, through your means and that of some of your correspondents, for information upon some particular points: and, being somewhat of an experimentalist myself, I shall at all times be willing to communicate the results, if likely to be of service, though upon this head I would venture to remark, that in all such cases the informant cannot be too explicit in stating, not merely the result of his experiment, whatever it be, but also all concomitant circumstances, such as the soil itself, its situation, condition, and nature; for I fear that there is a constant misapplication of theory, and total or partial failure in practice, from want of a due understanding or analysation of the soil itself: for we all know that what will answer for one sort of soil may be a failure on another. And this is confirmed by what I have read in the No. for this month of January, page 28. And in the seventh line of page 29, will be found the best answer to a " Worcestershire Farmer's" enquiry, page 86; who, if he can procure gypsum near home, had perhaps better topdress his seed land with it, and if not sufficient, sow it by hand again upon them the beginning of April. Now that agriculturalists are becoming more alive to the importance and value of applying the princi

ples of chemistry in their systems of management, particularly in making experiments for themselves, I believe much disappointment and waste of time and money might be saved by getting some trustworthy practitioner or professor to analyse the soil of some part or parts of the farm in the first instance, if intending to adopt some different system of culture. In my farm, for instance, I have nothing but fair good land, yet varying from sandy loam to the stiffest clay; and looking at the carefully drawn tables of the constituents as well as products of soils, does it not stand to reason that different modes of tillage should be consulted, and one's judgment aided by analysis of the soil: in fact, the detail of experiments, from the commencement to the result, cannot be too particular; nevertheless, if all well wishers and contributors have not time to be thus communicative, it would be a great boon to the improved and improving science of agriculture, and in the fullest sense, pro bono publico, if such a man as Mr. Morton of the Whitfield farm, or other talented or even painstaking agriculturalist, would devote an hour or two some winter's evening to communicate their good or bad opinion on the different points of practice, particularly in the results of experiments with manures, both foreign and home-made; for instance, I am not at all satisfied, nor do others write with any confidence as to the ulterior benefits from the application of guano-I mean in the next crop-or whether it be not merely forcing like nitrate of soda for the first or present growing crop; whereas, we know that good composts and good yard manure have virtues which will shew themselves in a second and third year. Last spring, after testing the goodness of some guano with a little lime, I dressed a portion of a field with it for turnips after the rate of only 1 cwt. to the acre, being all I had for it, sown by hand, then harrowed previously to sowing the turnips, though my farming man had very little faith in it compared with a good ripe compost of bones and ashes from couch and rubbish allowed him for the remainder of the field; and yet he admits that the guano turnips always kept the lead in the top; and being now compared, after being topped and tailed, shew equal quantities for equal lengths of row gathered separately. The land was of good loaming quality, rather high ground, upon a substratum of coarse, rough, stony, dry earth, rather gravelly in its nature but close. I should have stated that besides the drilling in of the compost the other part of the field had bad a moderate quantity of fold manure worked in. What may be the condition of the next corn crop upon each part of this field, I should be glad if possible to anticipate from the experience of some obliging correspondent. I had tried some guano upon meadow land, but I think there had not been a sufficient quantity applied. Of finely powdered gypsum, sown by hand on a calm damp morning the beginning of April, upon dry old meadow land, after the rate of six bushels per acre, the result was certainly more bloom and luxuriance of the clover (mostly red clover) and some little increase of the meadow, but none perceptible in the after-math. A portion of the same field being dressed with nitrate of soda, after the rate of 140 lbs. to the acre, it soon made that spot clearly distinguishable both in colour and quantity of crop, with a little improvement in the after-math also; but I do not anticipate permanent benefit visible next summer, as I do from another part of the same field dressed with good lime and soil compost. As to the operation of lime there