any sort sworn unto her, to be for ever absolved from every such oath, and all manner of duty, of dominion, allegiance, and obedience. We also command and interdict all and every the noblemen, subjects, and people aforesaid that they presume not to obey her, or her monitions, mandates, and laws; and those who shall do to the contrary we do likewise anathematize.' (See Butler's Mem. 1. 187). Pius was carried off by an attack of the stone in 1572, when he was about the age of sixty-eight, after a pontificate of little more than six years.

Gregory XIII. was unanimously elected his successor. It was during this pontificate that the massacre of the Protestants at Paris took place. See REFORMATION: 60,000 Protestants, according to Sully, fell in this awful massacre; and that it did not extend to the extermination of every individual, was, under divine providence, to be attributed to the caution of some who left the capital in time, the intrepidity of others, and the generous feeling of many of the Catholic officers, who refused to obey commands which they said belonged rather to executioners than to soldiers. This deed of blood was as assuredly approved by the pope as it was executed by the mandate of his priests. It was celebrated as an act of religion at Rome, and justified as a holy deed by the partisans of Rome. The solemn thanksgiving made was accompanied with a jubilee to all Christendom; for which one of the reasons was that they should thank God for the slaughter of the enemies of the church lately executed in France. In the oration of Muretus, pronounced in the presence of the supreme pontiff, Gregory' XIII., that memorable night, in which this accursed slaughter was committed, is blessed. The king, the queen, and the royal family are extolled for their share in the transaction, and the pope himself is styled most blessed Father for going in procession, to return thanks to God and St. Louis for the welcome news when brought to him. After the death of Gregory, in 1585, the papal chair was filled by Sixtus V. (Felix Peretti Di Montalto), who in pride, magnificence, intrepedity, strength of mind, and in other great virtues and vices, surpassed most of his predecessors. It had been usual, for the sake of acquiring popularity, on the election of a new pope, to set the imprisoned criminals at liberty; but the first act of Sixtus was to order four persons to be hanged, on whom were found, a few days before, prohibited weapons. This system of rigor he pursued with the most inexorable severity, never, in a single instance, pardoning a criminal. Instead of censuring the assassination of Henry III., King of Navarre, by the dominican Clement, Sixtus commended and approved of the action in a long, public, and official oration. That a monk had slain a king in the midst of his people he considered Rarum insigne et memorabile facinus. Facinus non sine Dei optimi maximi particulari providentia, et dispositione.' And then he goes on 'o say that it was not only done with the special providence and appointment of God, but by the suggestions and assistance of his Holy Spirit; a greater work than Judith's slaying Holofernes. In 1588 Philip equipped his invincible armada;

and Sixtus seconded the enterprise with all his spiritual authority. He renewed the bulls of Pius and Gregory against Elizabeth; and once more excommunicated and absolved her subjects from their allegiance. This celebrated pontifi died in August 1590, having reigned five years and four months. The rigor of his administration, his improvement of the city of Rome, the vast treasures he accumulated, his foundation of the Vatican library, and his fixing the number of cardinals at seventy, have all contributed to gain him immortal reputation, and have thrown great splendor about his name. Though we cannot look upon him as the model of a great prince, and much less of an irreproachable prelate, yet was his life and administration distinguished by many noble acts, particularly in his encouragement of sacred literature. In 1590 Sixtus published an edition of the Latin Vulgate, which by a bull he commanded should be received every where, and in all cases for true, legitimate, authentic, and undoubted; and that all future editions should be made conformable to this, not the least syllable being changed, added, or omitted, on pain of the greater excommunication. Notwithstanding this denunciation, however, Clement VIII., not very long after, revoked the decree of Sixtus, suppressed his edition, and published another of his own, in which he made more than 2000 corrections.

In 1592 the papal chair was filled by Hippolito Aldobrandini, under the name of Clement VIII. Clement yielded to none of his predecessors in zeal for the extension of the Romish faith; in this spirit he prepared the oath to be taken by the bishops and archbishops, which contains the words 'jura, honores, privilegia, et auctoritatem, Rom. ecclesiæ, domini nostri Papæ et successorum, conservare, defendere, augere, promovere curatio; Hereticos, schismaticos, et rebelles eidem domini nostro, pro posse persequar.' (Pont. Rom. Clem. VIII. Antwerp 1627, p. 59). In 1600 Clement issued a bull to prevent James I. from ascending the throne of England, declaring that 'when it should happen that that miserable woman (queen Elizabeth) should die, they (her subjects) should admit none to the crown, though ever so nearly allied to it by blood, except they would not only tolerate the Catholic religion, but promote it to the utmost of their power, and would, according to ancient custom, undertake upon oath to perform the same.' He was succeeded in the year 1605 by Leo XI. of the house of Medicis, who died a few weeks after his election, and thus left the papal chair open to Camillo Borghese, by whom it was filled under the denomination of Paul V. No one of his predecessors exceeded this pontiff in zeal for advancing the ecclesiastical authority, or showed himself more violent in endeavouring to execute his vengeance upon such as encroached upon his prerogative. Paul died at Rome in January 1621, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, after a pontificate of nearly sixteen years. Gre gory XV., who was raised to the pontificate in 1621, seemed to be of a milder disposition, though he was not less defective in equity and clemency towards those who had separated themselves from the church. This pope instituted the fa

mous college, 'De propaganda fide;' and endowed it with ample revenues for the maintenance of persons to be educated for foreign mission. Urban VIII., who previously bore the name of Maffei Barberini, and who, by his interest in the conclave, succeeded Gregory in the papal throne in 1623, was a man of letters, an eloquent writer, an elegant poet, and a generous and munificent patron of learning and genius; but nothing can equal the rigor and barbarity with which he treated all who bore the name of Protestants. The Bull, In canâ Domini, written in 1610 by Paul V., and promulgated by Urban in 1627, contains the whole elixir of ultramontane orthodoxy. It excommunicates heretics, schismatics, &c.; all who dare to appeal to a future council against the bulls and briefs of the pope; all princes who dare to levy taxes without the permission of the pope; those who make treaties of alliance with Turks or heretics; and those who complain to the secular judges against the wrongs and injuries received from the court of Rome.

In 1643 he issued a bull of deposition against Charles I. in Ireland: where, two years before, not fewer than 100,000 Protestants were massacred, and to those who had joined the rebellion of 1641 the same holy pontiff granted a plenary indulgence. In this dreadful massacre, as in that of France on St. Bartholomew's day, no ties of nature or of friendship could prevent the papists from imbruing their hands in the blood of their nearest Protestant relations. He may however be considered as a good and equitable ruler, compared with Innocent X., of the family of Pamphili, who succeeded him in the year 1644. This unworthy pontiff, to a profound ignorance, joined the most shameful indolence and the most notorious profligacy; for he abandoned his person, his dignity, the administration of his temporal affairs, and the government of the church, to the disposal of Donna Olympia, a woman of corrupt morals, insatiable avarice, and boundless ambition. He was succeeded in the papal chair, in the year 1655, by Fabio Chigi, who assumed the title of Alexander VII., and who, though less odious than his predecessor, nevertheless possessed all the pernicious qualities that are necessary to constitute a true pope, and without which the papal jurisdiction and majesty cannot be maintained. Benedict Odeschalchi, who is known in the list of pontiffs by the denomination of Innocent XI., and was raised to that high dignity in the year 1677, began his high career with abolishing abuses, and suppressing many gross superstitions then prevailing in the church of Rome. This respectable pontiff acquired a very high and permanent reputation by the austerity of his morals, his uncommon courage and resolution, his dislike of the grosser superstitions that reigned in the Romish church, his attempts to reform the manners of the clergy, and to abolish a number of those fictions and frauds that dishonor their ministry, and also by other solid and eminent virtues. He had a contest with the French king about the right of disposing of benefices and church lands, claimed by that monarch, and confirmed to him by an assembly of the clergy, which nearly terminated in a VOL. XVIII.

separation of the Gallican church from the Roman communion. It was on this occasion that Louis summoned the famous assembly of bishops which met at Paris in the year 1682, and drew up the four celebrated propositions declaring the power of the pope to be merely spiritual and inferior to that of a general council, and maintaining the inviolability of the rules, institutions, and observances of the Gallican church. These propositions were to the following purport:-1. That neither St. Peter nor his successors have received from God any power to interfere, directly or indirectly, in what concerns the temporal interest of princes and sovereign states; that kings and princes cannot be deposed by ecclesiastical authority, nor their subjects freed from the sacred obligation of fidelity and allegiance, by the power of the church or the bulls of the Roman pontiff. 2. That the decrees of the council of Constance, which maintained the authority of general councils as superior to that of the popes in spiritual matters, are approved and adopted by the Gallican church. 3. That the rules, customs, institutions, and observances which have been received in the Gallican church are to be preserved inviolable. 4. That the decisions of the pope, in points of faith, are not infallible, unless they be attended with the consent of the church.

Innocent died in 1689, having presided over the Roman see twelve years and a half. During this pontificate Louis XIV. was induced to revoke the edict of Nantz. On occasion of this disgraceful act Bossuet breaks out- Let me indulge the movement of my heart, and dwell on the piety of our monarch; let me address this new Constantine, this new Theodosius, this other Marcian, this other Charlemagne, in the words with which the 630 fathers expressed their sentiments to the emperor at the council of Chalcedon :"You have strengthened the faith, you have exterminated the heretics; it is the most meritorious act of your reign. King of Heaven! preserve the king of the earth! It is the ardent desire of the church; it is the ardent desire of the assembly, of her pastors, and of her bishops.' Innocent XII., a man of uncommon merit and eminent talents, whose name was Pignatelli, and who, in the year 1691, succeeded to the papal chair, was unwearied in his endeavours to reform the corrupt manners of the clergy, though he found that the entire accomplishment of the Herculean task was a consummation which all his prudence and resolution were unable to effect. He was anxiously devoted to the interests of the poor, and the wealth which many of his predecessors had been accustomed to accumulate, or to bestow on worthless relatives, he devoted to the public benefit, employing it in the erection of hospitals and other useful institutions. Innocent died in the year 1700 at the advanced age of eighty-five, after presiding over the church about nine years. The corruptions that had been complained of in preceding ages, both in the higher and inferior orders of the Romish clergy, were rather increased than diminished during this century, as the most impartial writers of that communion candidly confess. The bishops were rarely indebted for their elevation to their eminent learning, or

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superior merit. The intercession of potent patrons, services rendered to men in power, connexions of blood, and simoniacal practices were, generally speaking, the steps to preferment; and, what was still more deplorable, their promotion was sometimes owing to their vices. Their lives were such as might be expected from persons who had risen in the church by such unseemly means; for had they been obliged, by their profession, to give public examples of those vices which the holy laws of the Gospel so solemnly and expressly condemn, instead of exhibiting patterns of sanctity and virtue to their flock, they could not have conducted themselves otherwise than they did. Some indeed there were who, sensible of the obligations of their profession, displayed a truly Christian zeal in administering useful instruction, and exhibiting pious examples to their flock, and exerting their utmost vigor and activity in opposing the vices of the sacred order in particular, and the licentiousness of the times in general. But these rare patrons of virtue and piety were either ruined by the resentment and stratagems of their envious and exasperated brethren; or were left in obscurity, without that encouragement and support which were requisite to enable them to execute effectually their pious and laudable purposes.

Clement XI., originally John Francis Albani, was chosen to succeed Innocent in the pontifical office. He redressed some grievances, discountenanced vice and criminality of every kind, performed acts of beneficence, gave an example of devotional regularity, and filled vacant offices and preferments with men of merit. But a revival of the contest between the Jansenists and the Jesuits had for some time conspired with politics and wars to disturb the tranquillity of Rome. For the more effectual repression of Jansenism, a new apostolical constitution was issued in the year 1705, condemning such errors with menaces of papal indignation. The antiJansenist ordinance, as it commenced with the terms unigenitus Dei filius, was quickly known throughout Christendom by the appellation of the bull'unigenitus.' This bull put an end to all hope of a reconciliation between the church of Rome and the Protestants, as in most of those points which had occasioned the separation it represented the doctrines of that church in the very same light in which they had been regarded by the first reformers. This bull is also known by the name of the constitution.

The dissensions and tumults excited in France by this edict were violent in the highest degree. A considerable number of bishops, and a large body composed of persons eminently distinguished by their piety and erudition, both among the clergy and laity, appealed to a general council. It was more particularly opposed by the cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, who, equally unmoved by the authority of the pontiff and by the resentment and indignation of Louis XIV., made a noble stand against the despotic proceedings of the court of Rome. The issue of this famous contest was favorable to the bull, which was at length rendered valid by the authority of the parliament, and was registered among the laws of the state. This contributed, in some

measure, to restore the public tranquillity; but it was far from diminishing the number of those who complained of the despotism of the pontiff. In 1712, when by virtue of the treaty of AltRastadt certain places were to be surrendered to some Protestant princes, pope Clement XI., in a letter to the emperor Charles VI., denounced the Protestants as an execrable sect,' and, in the plenitude of his pretended supremacy, declared every thing which either was, or could be construed or esteemed to be, in any way, obtrusive of, or in the least degree prejudicial to, the Romish faith or worship, or to the authority, jurisdiction, or any rights of the church whatever, to be, and to have been, and perpetually to remain hereafter, null, unjust, reprobated, void, and evacuated of all force from the beginning: and that no person is bound to the observance of them, although the same have been repeated, ra tified, or secured by oath.' Clement died in 1721, at the age of seventy-one. The election of Michael Angelo Conti, who took the name of Innocent XIII., as successor of Clement, was very unexpected. His noble descent and his personal accomplishments had raised him to the highest offices, the duties of which he had always discharged with reputation and honor. But the infirmities of age prevented him from distinguishing himself as pope. Innocent died the 3d of March 1724. Cardinal Vincent Orsini, eldest son of the duke of Gravina, who, now succeeded to the pontificate as Benedict XIII., took every opportunity of recommending a strict regard to moral and social duties, and a steady practice of Christian virtues. His dislike of pomp and magnificence, his concern for the morals of the clergy, and his care for the poor, however commendable, did not obtain for him or his plan the support of the cardinals and the other great men of his court. He held a provincial council in the Lateran church, chiefly for a reform of the conduct of the clergy; and the assembly voted for an enforcement of some decrees that had been enacted by the council of Trent, but which had fallen into disuse. On another occasion he rose above the bigotry of his predecessors, by expressing a wish for the diffusion of scriptural knowledge; and, with that view, he permitted the people in general to peruse the sacred volume, and encouraged the multiplication of copies in the modern languages. A grand scheme of religious comprehension was formed by this respectable ruler of the Romish church: it was of no less magnitude than the union of the four communities that divided Christendom. He proposed that four councils should be bolden at different places at the same time, each consisting of a certain number of representatives of the Romish, Greek, Lutheran, and Calvinist churches, with a president of one or other church in each assembly. He did not, however, carry his scheme into execution. Benedict was indefatigable in his official duties: he continued to pray and preach, attend to all pontifical and sacerdotal functions, and direct the conduct of subordinate prelates and ministers of the church. He frequently visited the poor, and relieved them by his bounty, selling for that purpose the presents which he received. He habituated him

self to the plainest fare, and lived in the most frugal manner, like a hermit in his cell, that he might more liberally bestow upon others the blessings of fortune. He died in the eightysecond year of his age and the sixth of his pontificate. Yet so overpowering were the principles of his church over the mind of this naturally moderate and well disposed man that, from evidence communicated to a committee of the Irish parliament by father John Kennesy, it appears that his holiness, in compliance with the request of the Romish archbishops and bishops of Irelaud (who had conspired with others of the Romish communion to place the pretender on the throne), issued his bull to facilitate their intention, and sent them an indulgence for ten years, in order to raise a sum of money, to be speedily applied to restore James III. This bull provided that every communicant, confessing and receiving upon the patron days of every respective parish, and any Sunday from the 1st of May to September, having repeated the Lord's prayer five times, and once the apostles' creed, upon paying two pence each time, was to have a plenary indulgence for all his sins. And, under this bull, it appears that the sum of £1500 sterling was ready to be remitted to the pretender's agent in Flanders, at the time the treasonable conspiracy was detected by the vigilance of the Irish government! Clement XII., of the Corsini family, was now chosen in 1730, after a long contest, to succeed the mild and humble Benedict. He quickly reformed some abuses which had crept into the administration of the Roman state, and then directed his attention to foreign affairs. This pontiff was a man of respectable abilities; had a regard for justice; was cautious and prudent, yet not destitute of spirit; economical without being meanly parsimonious; easy of access, without rendering himself indecorously familiar. He had a taste for the polite arts, and was an encourager of literary merit. Dying in February, 1740, in the eighty-eighth year of his age, he was succeeded by Prosper Laurence Lambertini, archbishop of Bologna, who entered upon his high office under the designation of Benedict XIV.

In the administration of the church, Benedict was mild and conciliatory. He was aware of the relaxed morality of the clergy in the catholic states; but, however he might wish to check their licentiousness, he did not take any strong or violent measures for that purpose. At the solicitation of those princes who were displeased at the intrigues and offended at the mal-practices of the Jesuits, he promised to exert his authority for the reform of that order, and the bull which he issued for this purpose was one of the last acts of his life. He died in 1758, when he had attained the age of eighty-three years. He was an erudite theologian, as his numerous works evince, and a liberal patron of learning and the Cardinal Rezzonico, bishop of Padua, who succeeded him as Clement XIII., had a greater reputation for picty, and was more zealous for the high claims of the church, but he was not so generally esteemed as his predecessor. During his pontificate the Jesuits became peculiarly obnoxious. Their enemies in vain so

arts.

licited the dissolution of that order while Clement filled the papal chair; but they conceived strong hopes of success when a prelate of a more philosophical character was chosen pontiff. This was a Franciscan monk, Francis Lawrence Ganganelli, who obtained the purple in the year 1769, and thought proper to assume the name of his immediate predecessor. The Jesuits affected to believe (and probably many of them really thought) that Clement would not dare to suppress their order. But, in the fifth year of his pontificate, a bull for the annihilation of the society was promulgated, its colleges were seized, and its revenues confiscated. Lorenzo Ricci, the refractory general of the order, was sent to the castle of St. Angelo, and died in confinement. The French complimented Ganganelli on this occasion by restoring the Venaissin to the holy see. In 1775 Clement published a bull of indulgence, which fully proves that this spiritual traffic was as yet officially and publicly recognised by the church of Rome. Clement did not long enjoy his tranquillity; for he died in the autumn of the following year at the age of sixty-eight. It was supposed that he had been poisoned, but this suspicion has not been verified. Of all the occupants of the papal throne, for some centuries, Ganganelli seems to be one of the most unprejudiced, candid, and liberal.

The government of the church after his death was consigned to John Angelo Braschi, who had been created cardinal by Ganganelli, and was regarded as a moderate man. He commenced his administration as Pius VI. with acts of benevolence and charity, and with the selection of deserving men for various offices. He also issued a bull, dated April 1778, in which he declared that the faithful should be excited to the reading of the Holy Scriptures, for these are the most abundant sources which ought to be left open to every one, to draw from them purity of morals and of doctrine.' At this time the emperor Joseph of Austria, who was himself a freethinker, manifested a strong inclination to abridge the papal power in his dominions. In 1781 he began with imposing restrictions upon the operations of bulls and rescripts sent from Rome. He further displeased the pontiff by ordering that no money should be sent into foreign countries for masses; that no dignity should be solicited at Rome without his permission; that pilgrimages should be discontinued; and that the number of images and ornaments in churches should be diminished. The disgust felt by Pius at this conduct was not allayed by the liberal edict of Joseph, granting full toleration to all the Protestants in his dominions, as well as to all members of the Greek church: the dissolution of a great number of monasteries, with the conversion of the buildings into colleges, hospitals, or barracks, increased the indignation of the pope. The see of Rome lost in consequence the presentation to bishoprics in Lombardy and other Austrian dependencies; its nuncios were deprived of their power and jurisdiction in Germany, and the lustre of the papacy was visibly eclipsed.

There seemed to be a general disposition in Catholic Europe, during this pontificatę, to diminish the authority of the papal see; so that

the modern bishops of Rome exhibit little more than an empty shadow of the authority of the ancient pontiffs. The sovereign princes and states of Europe who embrace their communion no longer tremble at the thunder of the Vatican, but treat their anathemas with indifference. They indeed load the holy father with pompous titles, and treat him with all the external marks of veneration; yet they have given a mortal blow to his authority, by the prudent and artful distinction they make between the court of Rome and the Roman pontiff. For, under the cover of this distinction, they buffet him with one hand and salute him with the other. In 1796, when Buonaparte was every where victorious, Pius commited an act of aggression by suffering the Neapolitan cavalry who were hastening to the succor of the enemies of France to pass through the territories of the church, and even directed their march. When the pontiff was under the necessity of throwing himself on the clemency of the conqueror, he would not even grant him an armistice but on very severe conditions. The pope was compelled to renounce the friendship of the coalesced powers, and to shut up his ports against them; to surrender to the French the cities of which they already had possession, as well as the citadel of Ancona; to pay nearly £1,000,000 sterling; and to deliver 100 pictures, busts, vases, statues, &c., and 500 MSS., to be selected by commissioners who should be sent to Rome for that purpose. Europe beheld with astonishment and regret this pontiff, a venerable old man, degraded, insulted, expelled from his capital, and harassed with removals from place to place. During his pontificate he is said to have deserved, by his good government and public spirit, the respect and affection of his subjects. Pius died at Briançon, in April 1799, in the eighty-second year of his age.

After the church had subsisted for some time without a head, the fugitive members of the sacred college held a conclave at Venice, by desire of the emperor of Germany: and the cardinal Di Chiaramonte, being honored with their suffrages, began to act as pontiff under the title of Pius VII. Immediately on his election he announced his succession to Louis XVIII. as the lawful king of France, though then in exile: yet, in the following year, he entered into a concordat with Buonaparte. Rome being recovered by the arms of the allies, Pius was soon enabled to unite temporal power with spiritual authority. With him, therefore, Buonaparte condescended to treat; when this fortunate warrior, having acquired the dignity of first consul or sovereign of France, wished to show himself a friend to religion. It was stipulated between them that the catholic, apostolic, and Romish religion, should be freely and publicly exercised in France; new division of dioceses should take place: that, as soon as the first consul should have nominated bishops, the pope should confer upon them the canonical institution; that the prelates should appoint, for parochial ministers, such persons as the consul should approve that no council or synod should meet without the consent of the government; that no papal legate or nuncio should act, and no bull or brief be opera

that a

tive without the same consent. Ten archbishops and fifty bishops were assigned to the whole republic; and it was required that they should be natives of France, aged at least thirty years. The subserviency of ecclesiastics of all descriptions to the civil power, in doctrine as well as in discipline, formed a leading feature in this arrangement. The secularization of certain German churches and chapters in 1803, by the diet of Augsburg, which distributed some of them as indemnities to secular Protestant princes, gave occasion to many despatches from Rome in the years 1803, 1804, and 1805, and particularly to an instruction to the papal nuncio resident at Vienna in 1805, in which Pius VII. says, that the church had not only taken care to prohibit heretics from confiscating ecclesiastical possessions; but that she had moreover established, as the penalty of the crime of heresy, the confiscation and loss of all property possessed by heretics. This penalty, as far as concerns the property of private individuals, is decreed, he says, by a bull of Innocent III. cap. Vergentes X. de Hæreticis: and, as far as concerns sovereignties and fiefs, it is a rule of the canon law, cap. Absolutus XVI. de Hæreticis, that the subjects of a prince manifestly heretical are released from all obligation to him, dispensed from all allegiance and ail homage. To be sure, his holiness goes on to say, we are fallen into such calamitous times that it is not possible for the spouse of Jesus Christ to practice, nor even expedient for her to recal her holy maxims of just rigor against the enemies of the faith. But, although she cannot exercise her right of deposing heretics from their principalities and declaring them deprived of their property, yet can she not for one moment allow that they should rob her of her property to aggrandise and enrich themselves! What an object of derision would she become to heretics and infidels, who, in mocking her grief, would say, that they had found out a way of making her tolerant! Essai Historique sur la Puissance Temporale des Papes. tom. II. p. 320.

The church, however, was destined to be dealt with on very different principles by one of her dear sons.' Early in 1809, while Buonaparte was at Vienna, he caused proclamation to be made in the public squares and market place of that city, that from the 1st of June the papal territory should he united with the French empire; and that Rome should at the same time be declared a free and imperial city. This decree, which fixed the annual revenue of the pope at 2,000,000 af francs, was grounded on three propositions: first, that the territories of Rome were fiefs bestowed by the emperor Charlemagne, the predecessor of the emperor Napoleon, on the bishops of Rome, to maintain the peace of his subjects; second, that ever since that time the union of temporal and spiritual power has been, and still is, the source of dissension; and third, that the temporal pretensions of the pope are irreconcileable with the security of the French army, the repose and prosperity of the nations subject to the sway of Napoleon, and the dignity and inviolability of his empire. The pope protested against this violence, excommunicating Buonaparte and ali who adhered to him in his invasion of the papal