manner of representation is reflected first of all in general, and that throughout, in his name. Comp. also § 2.1

Then, in particular, above other things, emphasis must be laid on the priestly stamp which the prophecy of Ezekiel bears. If Keil (Bibl. Comm. p. 9) appears to have his difficulties in this respect, he is certainly right as against the opposite views brought forward by him; but this predominantly "symbolical and allegorical dress," which is "carried out into the most minute details," as it belongs to Ezekiel above "all other prophets," could with difficulty in the case of a Jew be better obtained than in the Levitical service, than in the temple at Jerusalem, than by means of a priestly education and training,-in short, in a priestly-Levitical way. A Levite lived in the Mosaic worship, a priest lived in the midst of symbolism and allegory; he became accustomed to it (especially if he brought along with him a mind suited for it, and possessed the sanctified imagination of Ezekiel) from his surroundings, from his whole actings, as it were involuntarily as his prevailing mode of expression. Thus "lie the elements," as Keil, following Hävernick, remarks, for the vision at the very commencement (ch. i.), "in the enthronement of Jehovah above the cherubim on the lid of the ark of the covenant," consequently in what was of necessity the crowning-point of a priest's life and of priestly contemplation, according to Lev. xvi. As the glory of Jehovah is the ruling element in the whole book, its priestly keynote is thus sufficiently indicated; but the closing chapters, with the prophetic description of the new temple, etc., completely reveal the priest-prophet, and are only to be explained from a genuine priestly fancy."

A further characteristic of the method of Ezekiel's prophecy is a lofty ideality, a high figurativeness leaving far behind it the usual forms of existence, side by side on the other hand with a severe realism, encountering sensualism sensually. Both elements in their contrasts, in their conflict with one another, give to the prophetic form of Ezekiel an eminently original vivacity.

His sojourn in exile may be looked upon as contributing to this in a twofold respect: in the first place, in so far as our prophet was thereby withdrawn from the proper scene of events; and in the second place, inasmuch as he was at the same time placed in the midst of the Babylonian world.

If Jeremiah is himself present on the scene of events, is every instant enduring his part in the vicissitude of actual occurrences, has to interfere in the circumstances lying immediately before him, and if therefore he led a more stirring outward life, his style corresponds therewith-that of more popular prophetic discourse; his whole activity takes its complexion from the particular actual occurrence. Ezekiel, on the other hand, far as he was from Judea, standing face to face with the imaginings of the exiles (whatever inner connection these forced with the fatherland), amid the most diverse rumours, dispositions, and feelings, was pointed to the divine communication by means of revelation. It is therefore only fitting if he

1 "Above all others, the prophet is distinguished by an uncommon power and energy. Ezekiel is one of the most imposing organs of the Spirit of God in the Old Covenant, a really gigantic phenomenon. In opposition to the present, he steps forth with all sternness and iron consistency, an inflexible nature, encountering the abomination with an immoveable spirit of boldness, with words full of consuming fire. Unceasingly he holds up the one thing that was needful before the deaf ears and hard hearts of the people. The overpowering element of his eloquence rests on this union in it alike of imposing strength and indefatigable consistency."-(Hävernick, Comment. p. xiv.)

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2 Ewald asserts that in this last great section of his book Ezekiel "begins already to look on what the people regard as sacred and the priesthood of Israel with that timidity and externality which becomes ever more prevalent after his time," and sees therein "just a consequence of the one-sided literary conception of antiquity according to mere books and traditions, as well as of the depression of intellect increased by the longer duration of the exile and bondage of the people." The exposition will as decidedly reject the alleged "timidity and externality," as Hävernick rightly points to this, what a high spirit" rather, "which, looking away from all the pains and sufferings of the present, lives in the future and the reconstruction of the kingdom of God with fresh enthusiasm, meets us just in the second part of Ezekiel." If, however, the detailed character of the description were to make the impression of "externality," then this is a peculiarity of the prophet in the very first chapter of his book, and characterizes his popular addresses no less than his visions. One may look upon this at the same time as the later literary style; but the manner of Ezekiel is once for all to take a penetrating view of his subject on all sides, as he himself wholly lives and moves therein, and to exhaust it as far as possible. The more tranquil outward (public) life of Ezekiel, as compared with Jeremiah, is therefore not yet the "learned" "literary leisure" which Ewald makes it out to be.

In this as in many other respects, Ezekiel may be compared with Tertullian.

looks at things as from afar, thus from the divine idea of Jehovah's self-accomplishing glory. His activity thus ideally conditioned concerns itself with the certain fact chiefly according to its essence, in its necessity and character of fact as such. On the height, it is not so much the ever-recurring gust of wind, the whirling dust, the falling of the heavy raindrops, and anon the first flash of lightning, the rolling of the first thunder, that affects us; it is especially the existence of the thunder-cloud coming from afar that has the power to engross our attention. In the distance from where the event actually occurs as an isolated phenomenon, the prophetic life will be for the most part internal,—a contemplative, ideal one; instead of the separate occurrences, by means of which the fact is accomplished on its theatre, there will meet us here, according to individuality and surroundings, as well as (in the case of a prophet) ever under the special divine impulse (in vision), the separate forms of representation, by means of which the contemplative spirit seeks to put in shape for itself and others the ruling idea of the whole. Hence, to make of Ezekiel a recluse and pedant,-to fancy him, as Ewald does, a mere literary man confined to his own house and the narrow limits of domestic life" (The Prophets of the Old Covenant, ii. p. 210),—will appear to a believer in an extraordinary divine revelation to be an idea which may be mentioned because of its singularity, not refuted. Only on the standpoint of rationalistic or naturalistic materialism, where one makes the prophets at his own hand (comp. another passage at p. 203), are such conceptions and representations at home. The high position of Ezekiel in God's fixed purpose-the more so that he has his abode far from the sinking fatherland, among his fellow-captives by the Chebar-explains, in connection with his poetic gift (acknowledged even by Ewald), sufficiently the lofty ideality of his prophetic mode of representation.1

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As to what has been maintained on the other side with respect to the "influence of the Babylonian spirit and taste on the form of his prophecy," viz. in reference to his symbolism, we must agree with Keil in the view, that the admission "of Old Testament ideas and views," alike for the contents and for the form, in general is sufficient (comp. the work referred to, p. 6 sqq.); on the other hand, as respects the filling up of the picture in detail, the exposition may indeed specify many an Assyro-Babylonian feature.

Thus ch. xl. sqq., with their architectural finish and picturesqueness of detail, transport us in a lively way into the midst of the immense architectural labours of Nebuchadnezzar, by means of which, when returned home from his victories, he transformed his metropolis Babylon into the finest city of the world, not merely adorning and enlarging it, but fortifying it quite as much, just as, in like manner, in order to preserve the original territory of the kingdom, the land of Shinar, and the capital, from the Medes, he caused the so-called Median wall to be carried across from the Euphrates to the Tigris. The late Professor Hengstenberg said to me long ago, in course of a conversation about the last chapters of Ezekiel, the prophet must certainly have had a "knowledge of building," just as, e.g., Riggenbach's treatise also on the tabernacle betrays such knowledge. At all events, the probability is as great of there being a natural substratum for the detailed restoration of the divine visions at the close of his book in what the priest of Judah in Babylonian exile, by means of Nebuchadnezzar's 3 iminense buildings in city and country, was able to appropriate from what he saw

"The flame of the divine wrath, the mighty rushing of the Spirit of the Lord, the holy majesty o Jehovah, as the seer has beheld it, is wonderfully reproduced in his discourse" (Hävernick).

2 For this we have the ocular testimony (thoroughly confirmed by lately discovered inscriptions) of Herodotus, who visited Babylon in course of the fifth century before our era. The city had the form of a rectangle (comp. Ezek. xlviii. 30 sqq.). Herodotus describes the wall 200 feet high with its 100 gates (comp. also Ezek. xl. xlii.), with posts and thresholds of massive bronze. The deep and swiftly flowing Euphrates (comp. Ezek. xlvii.) intersected Babylon, discharging itself into the Erythræan Sea. The outer wall served as a work of defence. In the midst of the one half of the city was the royal palace, with large, strongly fortified enclosure; in the midst of the other half of the city was the sanctuary of Bel with its brazen gates (comp. ch. xlviii. 21 sqq.). Herodotus' description of Babylon reads like a parallel to Ezek. xl.-xlviii. (The circumference of Babylon, as the great outer wall determined it, was, according to the measurements of Oppert, the topographer of the old Chaldean city, sever times that of modern Paris; the inner and more contracted wall embraced still a much larger area than London.) "In symbolical effect," says Lange on one occasion, "human culture becomes a picture of divine worship."

• Nebuchadnezzar as a builder outstripped all his predecessors (Fr. Lenormant, Manuel, ii. 17 sqq.). He rebuilt almost entirely the royal city of the old Cushite rulers, lying on the eastern bank of the Euphrates; a gigantic new palace rose there at his command, recognizable even at the present day in

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and understood in this connection. Nay rather, in contrast with the buildings of Nebuchadnezzar, the building of Jehovah rises up in Ezekiel as the architectural antithesis of the kingdom of God to the kingdoms of this world, as these latter are symbolized and typified by the world-empire of Nebuchadnezzar. In this way, face to face with "the dominion of the worldpowers," as Auberlen designates the stadium of the Babylonian captivity "in the history of the development of the kingdom of God," a significant memento was set up. Our view is, that the impression which the melting and expenditure of brass and of gold necessary for the gigantic buildings of Nebuchadnezzar, and the innumerable brick kilns, were fitted to make, is to be met with in comparisons such as Ezek. i. 4, 7, 13, 27, viii. 2, x. 2, xxii. 20, 22, etc. But especially the designedly sensual realism1 of the representation, of the singular mode of expression in chapters like ch. xvi. and xxiii., seems to have borrowed its colouring from the so notorious gross sensuality of the Babylonian idolatry, in which the most unbridled, most shameless naturalism prevailed. Thus Herodotus relates of the temple of Bel, that in the chapel in the uppermost tower "there is a bed quite prepared," and that "no one spends the night in it but a woman of the land whom the god appoints." Bilitta, or Mylitta, the great goddess of nature, who combined the contrasted qualities of the heavenly and the popular Venus, Tauth and Zarpanit, demanded usually of every woman of the land once in her life her prostitution to a stranger as an offering.. So Nana or Zarpanit, worshipped at Kutha, bore the surname of Succoth-Benoth, which likewise points to such prostitutions in honour of the goddess. Comp. the apocryphal epistle of Jeremiah, vers. 42, 43.

the hill of rubbish Kasr, one of the largest. An artificial hill was the site of the celebrated "hanging gardens," which were intended to represent to his Median consort Amytis her beautiful fatherland; terraces rising step by step one above the other, an "Isola Bella" on land, according to Oppert the great rubbish-deposit of Amram. Of the "temple of the foundations of the earth," called also Bit Saggatu ("the temple which raises its head"), that very ancient terraced pyramid of the royal city, with the alleged tomb of the god Bel-Merodach and an esteemed oracle, Nebuchadnezzar says in an inscription: "Bit Saggatu is the great temple of heaven and earth, the dwelling of the lord of the gods, Merodach. I have restored his sanctuary, the seat of the supreme authority, overlaying it with pure gold." A second terraced pyramid was erected by him beside it as a temple for the goddess Zarpanit. On the side of the "secular city" (Hallat) on the west bank of the Euphrates, now Hillah, where the captives from the different countries and Jews also were settled, Nebuchadnezzar restored the tower of Babel, and built therein the great temple of Bel, called Bit-Zida, and "the temple of the seven heavenly spheres." An inscription discovered some years ago, and translated, calls it "the terracetower, the everlasting house, the temple of the seven lights of the earth (planets), to which the oldest mention of Borsippa (i.e. the tower of the languages') is attached, which the first king built, but was not able to finish; men had forsaken it since the days of the flood, expressing their words in confusion. The earthquake and the thunder had shaken the crude brick, and had split the burnt brick of the facing; the crude brick of the foundation-walls had sunk down into hillocks." Herodotus also gives a description of this building restored as a temple. General Rawlinson has pointed out that the seven storeys with the sanctuary of the god above were painted as with the colours of the seven heavenly bodies; the succession of colours represented at the same time the succession of the days of the week. The cuneiform inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar enumerate other temples besides, which he restored or erected anew, and likewise in the other cities of Chaldea. Those of Kai also, on the Euphrates at Babylon, were finished by him; but just as he cared for "the city of his kingdom" (so he calls it in his inscriptions), so in like manner he cared for the remaining portions of his land: he restored the celebrated royal canal (Naharwalkor), and below Sippara he caused an immense lake to be dug for the purpose of irrigation. It is certainly to be conceded that such activity in building on the part of Nebuchadnezzar will somehow be reflected in the prophetic form of Ezekiel, whose labours were carried on in presence of it.

"As the symbolism and application of similitudes, images, and proverbs is in general only a means to an end, that of illustrating the truths to be brought forward, and of strengthening by means of illustration the effect of the word and the discourse, so the like end is also served by the detail and circumstantiality of the representation, and even by the repetition of thoughts and expressions under new points of view. The people to whom Ezekiel had to preach repentance by the announcement of divine judgment and salvation were a rebellious race, of brazen face and hardened heart. If he wished to exercise towards these faithfully and conscientiously the office of watchman committed to him by the Lord, he must both rebuke the sins of the people with strong words and in drastic fashion, and portray the terrors of the judgment vividly before their eyes, and also set forth in a way that would strike the senses that salvation which was to spring up thereafter for the penitent."-KEIL. "Est atrox, vehemens, tragicus, totus in duvaru, in sensibus elatus, fervidus, acerbus, indignabundus. In eo genere, ad quod unice videtur a natura comparatus, nimirum vi, impetu, pondere, granditate, nemo ex omni scriptorum numero eum unquam æquavit."-LOWTH.

From the circumstance that our prophet was placed in the midst of the Babylonian world, yet another peculiarity characterizing him and his book is explained, viz. his surprisingly accurate knowledge of foreign nations and their affairs (comp. ch. xxvi. sqq., xxxviii., xxxix.). In this respect he makes the impression of a man who has travelled much and far. Naturally, Ewald finds in this a confirmation of his strange view of Ezekiel sitting over his books, of the "literary and learned man" at the expense of the genuine prophet. It is true: "the position and circumstances of the nations and countries of the earth are described by him with a comprehensiveness and a historical vividness such as belongs to no other prophet." But for this there was no need in the kingdom of Babylon of any far-fetched "learning;" it was enough, with an actual interest and the necessary mental endowments, which even the mastery of his materials possessed by Ezekiel sufficiently shows,-if there were simply open eyes and ears, for Babylon was one of the centres of eastern commerce (Ezek. xvii. 4, xvi. 29), as its geographical position, where Higher and Lower Asia meet, between two great rivers, which placed it in connection with the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, amply justifies, and as may also be shown in other ways. At this market-place so situated, the caravans of the east and west came together, and the mariners of Africa, Arabia, and India met one another. Here they obtained by barter the products of Babylonian industry, which was employed, down even to the villages, e.g. in woollen and linen weaving, in the manufacture of garments and carpets. Babylonian weapons, furniture, jewellery, and other fancy goods were articles not less desired. On the other hand, there came to Babylon wines from Armenia, precious stones and large dogs from India, as also the finest woollen stuffs from Persia, perfumes, spices, gold, ivory, and ebony from Arabia and Ethiopia. In the city of Babylon the great world-roads converged (comp. Lenormant, p. 35 sqq.). In addition, a powerful navy; Babylonian ships sailed over the Persian Gulf. According to Strabo, there were factories and colonies of Babylonians in distant lands.

One sees that the Babylonian exile had a similar task to that of the sojourn of the people in Egypt in former days; it was only a more advanced secular school for the Jews.

If now we must specify vision and symbolism as being, to a considerable extent, the characteristic of Ezekiel's prophecy, there is thus expressed a departure from the previous fundamental form of prophecy, viz. inspired popular discourse (which is the peculiarity e.g. of Isaiah, and also of Jeremiah even), and an approach to Daniel's peculiarity. What steps more into the background with Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other prophets (Isa. vi.; Jer. xxiv.), begins to be more prominent in Ezekiel, although "the word of Jehovah" also comes to him repeatedly along with it. The lower form of dream is not found in our prophet; but divine revelation comes to him in á waking state, in the higher form of vision (Ezek. i., viii. sqq., xl. sqq.); and just as in the dream plastic symbolism is the rule, so symbolic representation, figurative and allegorical discourse, parabolic speech, the enigmatic is the seer's mode of expression in word as in action (Ezek. i., xv., xvii., iii., iv., v., etc.). HESS: "One might call it pantomimic." The more that God is unveiled before the prophet, in so much the more veiled a way does he shape his reproduction of what he has seen for the profane multitude. (Comp. in this connection the phenomena in the case of one who has risen from the dead. Auberlen quotes also Matt. xiii. 10 sqq.) Only when Ezekiel is to be at the same time an expositor, and he is so almost throughout (ch. i. 28, iv. 3, 13 sqq., xvii.),—it is in this way the transition is made in his case to the plain word, to the prophetic popular discourse,-do logical thought and conceptions again make their appearance. That being in the Spirit (Rev. i. 10, iv. 2), as distinguished from this speaking in the Spirit, is the apocalyptic element of Ezekiel. He testifies of

And yet Ewald concedes, and in words copiously recognises (pp. 204–206), a public ministry of Ezekiel, and that with "clearest consciousness of his being a genuine prophet," and "more plainly expressed than in the case of any earlier prophet."

"We find in the prophet partly a purely didactive mode of discourse tranquilly unfolding itself, similar to what is to be found in the older prophets, ch. xii.-xix. The style is then the usual one of prophetic rhetoric," etc. (Häv.).

"That mode of representation, because it introduces us immediately to the inner world of the prophetic spirit, has a mysterious, ofttimes obscure and enigmatic character. The prophet loves this mode of speech so much the more, when it rouses attention and inquiry, and the more impressively a word of such a kind touches men's hearts. Jerome designates our book as: scripturarum oceanum et mysteriorum Dei labyrinthum" (Häv.). Perhaps, for the idea of Theosophy (comp. the article of Lange in Herzog xvi.), the Old Testament point of connection may be got from Ezekiel.

it from the beginning (ch. i. 1): that "the heavens were opened," and "he saw visions of God." (Comp. the profound remarks of Auberlen on the three forms of Old Testament revelation, Theophany, Prophecy, Apocalypse, in his Daniel and Revelation, p. 70 sqq.1)

We shall also in the case of Ezekiel be able to speak of "a look that is all-embracing,” according to Auberlen the one peculiarity of apocalypse, just as we shall meet in our prophet with the other peculiarity remarked by him, “specialty of prediction," that apocalypse "gives more of the detail of universal history and more eschatological detail than prophecy," not exactly in the way in which it occurs in Daniel, but yet in similar fashion. Hävernick says: Rightly did Witsius call the donum prophetiæ of our prophet incomparabile. True indeed, grasps the future more in its general features,-the most comprehensive possible form of the kingdom of God as a whole,—but along with that there are not wanting also remarkable glimpses into the detail of the future, predictions strictly so called, on which by means of their exact fulfilment the seal of truth and of divine enlightenment on the part of the prophet is impressed, ch. xxvi. sqq., xii. 12 sqq., xxiv.; comp. ch. xxxiii." (ch. xi. 10; comp. with Jer. lii. 10). Year, month, and day are given us; it is the prophet's conscious intention to remove every suspicion of a vaticinii post eventum.

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But apart from these definite predictions, the general sensuousness, the complete visibility of the prophetic form of Ezekiel is the suitable counterpart of the Chaldean world which so caught the eye, and amid which Israel is in a state of dread; and still more was it, on the other hand, adapted for the comfortless despondency and almost despair of those banished thither, from whom everything visible, which had been to them a pledge of the divine favour,—land, and city, and temple, and the beautiful ordinances of divine worship,-seemed to have vanished for ever, to comfort them against the whole aspect of things visible with something visible from God, and as it were palpably heavenly. For this purpose there lies a security from God in the appearance of Ezekiel, a sacramental character, one might say, to which, equally with the most definite predictions, a number of formulas recurring through the whole book contribute, such as. "and they shall know that I am Jehovah," or, "they shall know that a prophet is in their midst," "and the word of Jehovah came unto me, saying," "the hand of Jehovah came upon me," or the like, "as I live, saith the Lord Jehovah," "I, Jehovah, have said it," etc. ("Thus saith Jehovah the Lord" occurs, according to Kliefoth's reckoning, 121 times.) To perceive in such formulas (as Ewald does) "as it were an encouraging of themselves on the part of the fainting prophetic order," or even the boastful, stupid weakness of old age, is to misunderstand the intentional emphasizing of the divine origin and contents, which Ezekiel claims for his announcements. Not less does our prophet over and over again emphasize the divine commission, the divine impulse, to speak this, to do this or that (ch. vi. 1, xiii. 2, 17, xvi. 2, xvii. 2, xxxv. 2, xxxvi. 1, xxxviii. 2, iii. 1 sqq., iv. 4 sqq., xii. 1 sqq., xxi. 24 sqq., etc.). This is the more suitable in confronting his doubting, unbelieving, and rebellious hearers, especially for the opening apocalypse, where, in the case of the visions and symbols, mere human imagination might very greatly deceive itself and impose upon others. But Ezekiel is from the first set by Jehovah to speak and to execute the words of Him who thus commissioned him, and of Him only; his whole book is the fulfilment, and nothing more, of the symbolic procedure in ch. ii. 8 sqq.

In connection with this we must also understand the standing address of God to the prophet son of man,” viz. of one who of himself would be quite incapable of such communications, flesh of flesh, man of man!

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As regards the close connection of Ezekiel with the Pentateuch, Keil is perfectly right in asserting that he has this "in common with all the prophets." Along with his immediate predecessor Jeremiah, he is distinguished in this respect from the earlier prophets by the fact that the verbal references in both become more frequent and appear more prominent, which is

1 To this category belongs also the significant occurrence of the number seven: thus, seven times prophecy about Egypt (ch. xxix. sqq.); and so, seven nations against whom judgment is predicted (ch. xxv. sqq.), by means of an intentional separation of Tyre and Sidon. Kliefoth has shown that, even as respects the whole book, according to the formula, "and the word of Jehovah came unto me, saying," it consists of 7 x 7 words of God: "an arrangement according to the number seven," says he, "which we find in the book of Zechariah and in the Apocalypse, carried out in a different fashion; for what these prophets predict will be fulfilled and accomplished, like God's work of creation, in seven days." Comp. besides, on Apocalypse and Prophecy, Lange on Genesis, p. 36.