play to his shoulders; and, except that we are astonished to see one horse draw such heavy loads on such low wheels, the whole thing works appropriate for its purpose. But the country waggons are what excited my surprise long, narrow, and clumsy; as they are liberal of wood, but careful in use of iron. Small lock under front wheels, with axle two feet shorter than the hind one. Never painted, and loaded occasionally with six or seven of our tons to three horses abreast. Two tons per horse is considered a fair load; but the horses and roads are both excellent, and the latter without a hill for many miles. In lieu of shafts, this waggon has a pole half the length of a coach-pole, at the end of which the horses are hooked on to whipple-trees-three for two horses, and five for three, as we have at plough in some parts of England. So that no one horse can draw more than the others, the driver walks at their heels with one rein in his left hand, and his right on the pole, as he has to guide it and assist in stopping it; but in passing bridges or other descents he screws up a wooden bar, which catches both hind-wheels. The horses are the most docile I ever saw, and certainly these ungainly waggons follow well. The harness is as simple as our plough-harness. I have endeavoured, but uselessly, to find out the reason for this placing the horses so far from their work. I believe it is that all here are Flemish, staid, sober, money-making people, who are satisfied to do as their forefathers did; and the only other reason is, that, the harness being all alike, they are momentarily detached from one job to another, or an extra horse added over a bad bit of road in their fields. But from this strange combination of horses and waggons two hints may be taken. Decidedly three horses with whippletrees more equally divide their work than with us, and more easily start a dead pull. I have not seen one horse fret, and another hang back, as common at home; and I see no reason why we should not attach them in the same way. Some may think onehorse might pull the other back till his hocks were on the front wheel; but if we had a pole (or two poles for three horses), the pole pieces would prevent this. How admirably these bars are adapted to the three-horse omnibuses of London, as they must all draw alike. As regards the men, ours might imitate their sobriety, cleanliness, and kindness to their horses. I have not seen one horse struck; they all (gentlemen's coachmen too) crack their whips backwards and forwards, that is, twice to our once, and are quite proud of the horrid noise. Fancy a nobleman's coachman doing this in Hyde Park! The other hint we may take from their collars: The hames are attached to them, and go all round. They open at bottom, with a hinge at top, so have no occasion to be thrust over the head. They are quickly put over the neck. At the bottom each hame has what I can only describe as half of a door-hinge; these are pressed together, and a pin inserted, and all is done is most quickly. We all know the trouble in England with colts and bad-tempered horses to get the collar over the head. I must think theirs the better way. All collars, whether nags or cart-horses, are the same. The next attraction is the splendid asses; I did not know there was such a breed out of Spain-the Flemish ass, over twelve hands high, fat, handsome, and good workers. They never are shod, though they work on the roads, and are of the value of £12 to £14. I could not believe it, till all told me the same. The environs of Dunkirque for three or four miles are devoted to market-gardening, and principally managed by women, who come into the town with enormous carts of vegetables drawn by these donkeys. They think nothing of half a ton weight being drawn by one; and I saw a man riding on one with a barrel slung on each side of his saddle. But the most picturesque thing is the sight of

acountry-woman riding to market on her donkey. She has a saddle of sheepskin, with the wool on, reaching from the withers to the tail. She sits sideways, and has behind her, as on a pillion, a tub of butter, &c., most beautifully clean; and herself without a bonnet, but instead a large cap as white as snow, completes as rural a subject as artist would wish to sketch. The barges of 200 tons on the canals which traverse Belgium and France I think complete the objects of greatest interest in the town.

I should fancy no foreign agricultural subject can be more interesting to your readers than an account of the bette-raves, and the manufacture of them into sugar and alcohol, as sugar and spirits we all consume. The former, it is often said, is unprofitable to produce in our West India colonies, and ought to be supplanted by cotton. To say nothing about much of our imported sugar being the result of slave labour, the spirit is doubly a matter of anxiety now that the vines (though better) are more or less affected by disease. It is a root well adapted to our land; and it does seem extraordinary to me we have nothing of the kind. Whether we are prevented by law I know not; and if some of your correspondents would inform me the reason, I would feel obliged It is the main paying crop of the farmer here; and a most profitable one too, producing great weight, bearing an unlimited demand (except at this moment), and fetching always a remunerating price. Just now there is a complete panic in the trade, sugars having dropped in price, but more particularly spirits, which have fallen nearly half during the last six months, caused by the great crop of beet, the bad quality of them, and the increased supply of alcohol from the vine districts; consequently the roots, which for the last four years have fetched from 14s. to 18s., and in October 21s. per ton, are now a drug at 2s. 6d., and, after March, will be worth nothing, as every month after Christmas they lose some saccharine. So you may imagine the state of the trade and the feelings of the producers.

But, first, as regards the cultivation. The land here being all a splendid loam, is extremely applicable to the production of these roots; but, like our mangel wurzel, they are suitable to clays. Indeed, French chemists tell us that the most sugary roots are produced on clay with a deep top-soil, and containing flint. I need not say, the land requires to be clean: all here is always so. It is ploughed very deeply in autumn, well dunged, and sown from the middle of April to the end of May. The quantity of seed required is about 8lbs. to the acre, as it is either drilled or dibbled, with the thumb, one foot apart. The cost of it is about 5d. per lb. It is not liable to be attacked by the fly; and a plant is nearly certain. When the leaves are as long as the little finger, it is singled out, so that each plant stands exactly one foot apart each way; as if thinner, they grow too large. The smaller ones producing the most sugar, they are refused by the manufacturer if weighing much more than 4lbs. each. During the summer of course it is frequently hoed. The leaves are not taken off for cattle during the progress of its growth, as is sometimes done in England with the wurzel; and in September, when the tops droop and turn brown, it is time to lift them. This is often done by the acre, at 16s. I mention this to show how well the farm-labourers are paid here; but it requires to be most particularly well cleaned, which they do for this money, as also cut off the tops and crowns (which contain no sugar), and throw the roots into the waggons (carts are very seldom used here). The crop is about 22 tons per acre; often more. If not sold at once, it is clamped, and well covered with earth. Barns, cellars, and walls have been tried, but none do so well as the clamps, which are left open for some time along the whole ridge, to permit every particle

of evaporation to escape. In the neighbourhood of a factory whole fields may be seen covered with clamps, the reserve stock of the manufacturers. There are many sorts of betteraves, but the two sorts in general growth are the white Silesian, and a variety of the Silesian with a red skin and white interior. It exhausts the land more than potatoes; but though sold off the farm it has the good quality of returning to it as much manure, perhaps, as if wholly consumed on it (indeed the latter would be impossible, as in its raw state it is a dreadful scourer), as all the refuse after pressing-that is the farinaceous part of the root-is eagerly bought by the farmer at from 8s. 4d. to 13s. per ton for his fattening bullocks, cows, and sheep; to the first named he gives 100 lbs. weight per day. Now, as we know a bullock will eat 4 bushels of swedes in twenty-four hours, we may calculate at all events that it stands as 2 to 5 superior in quality to raw roots. This refuse, which looks like pressed rags, and is in flat pieces about as large as the palm of the hand, has also the peculiar quality of improving by keeping in clumps (well trod) for two or three years, enabling the farmer to lay in a store when a drop occurs in price. A great comfort to a stock-keeper to know he has always a reserve of food for all weathers and bad seasons. The crop that follows

is wheat; hot summers suit it best.

It was a long time known to be a saccharine root in France, but its usefulness was not developed till 1812, when the Government passed a decree permitting the growth to the extent of 250,000 acres, and exempted it from all duties; in three years it ceased to give this encouragement to the growth, but its prosperity progressed; in 1827 there were 89 factories, producing 8 million pounds of sugar; in 1836 more than 500, making nearly 50 millions; in 1837 they put a duty on it of a half-penny per lb., and added another farthing in 1839. From thence to now it has continually advanced.

I introduced myself, one fine morning, at a factory about a league from Lille, as an English stranger, asking the favour of an inspection of it. The owner most politely acceded to my wish, first making me partake of his, déjeuner, the usual eleven o'clock breakfast of chops, coffee, and wine. This hospitality I felt the more, as it was only the second time during my three months stay I had the opportunity of enjoying it, as all classes are alike unfortunate in their ignorance of our truly English custom of inviting all who cross our threshold to take something, from a glass of beer to a seat at dinHe then showed me his sugar and his distilling processes; it took three hours to go over it, and a most interesting mass of machinery it was.

ner.

The commencement of the process is as follows: The loaded waggons are weighed, as they enter, on a weighbridge, and the empty vehicle deducted; the roots then well-washed by steam-power, and drawn into the macerating machine by an archimedian-screw; after this is very minutely performed, the pulp is pressed in hydraulic presses, and the remains in the press bags are instantly ready for sale to the farmer. 180 pints of juice are extracted from 2 cwt. betteraves, which goes into a reservoir tolerably impervious to air (which is detrimental) till wanted. It is then heated in boilingpans to 60 degrees (I am not sure if this means the same as 60 degrees in England); and a solution of lime is thrown in at the rate of 1 part to 20 parts of juice, and a little sulphuric acid to neutralize any excess of lime. It is then filtered with animal charcoal, which also reduces the colour, and then passes into boiling-pans to evaporate; then a second evaporation and another concentration; and then a third filtration with charcoal; then boiling, and at this stage it passes into coolers and begins to crystallize. The remaining processes it would be tedious to your readers to have described.

The duty here is two-pence per lb., and it is usually sold at 6d. (not now), which is considered a profitable price.

We undersell the French in most manufactures; so it

is fair to suppose we can in sugar, if we please. We shackled, whether it was sugar or tobacco we wished to were told we were to have free trade, to be totally ungrow.

The molasses are distilled, of course, and some potass made from the refuse.

from the root itself: a ton is expected to make 10 gallons. Many distilleries are expressly for extracting spirit The whole of the refuse from this is useless.

Beet-root sugar-refining is also carried on to a great extent; the decrease in weight by the process is one-fifth. White sugar is retailed by the grocers now at 8d. to 9d. per lb. Remember I always write in English measures and weights.

It is allowed to be a most lucrative trade in all its branches. It is carried on over the whole of this northern department. Valenciennes is the very heart of it; but much is also done near Paris, Marseilles, and on the frontier near Switzerland.

The alcohol is sold for mixing with the Geneva cognac, and also for making eau-de-vie; also for varnish, and many descriptions of manufactures requiring cheap spirit. It has been sometimes exported to England,

but is not allowed at this time. Spirits are sold by all grocers, Geneva and eau-de£2 1s. 8d. per annum. vie at 6d. to 7d. per pint; the licence for which costs

I cannot finish this letter without remarking on the cheapness of spirits here, and the general sobriety, and comparing it with the contrary of both in England. It cannot be that the climate is warmer, for there is no hill between this city and the Polar Seas, and it is indeed cold here. The unrestricted sale here, at all events, does not produce drunkenness.

AN ENGLISH FARMER IN FRANCE. Lille, March 4th, 1858.

QUICKS (CRATGÆUS OXYCANTHA) Common Hawthorn-for general, or, more particularly, for agricultural purposes, are not to be excelled. Their culture is too well known to require any particular comment, did we not see so often erroneous practices carried out; for instance, the planting upon high banks, which dries them up, and, when crumbled down, leaves them exposed to the inroads of cattle, &c. No better example is taught us than those planted by the sides of railwaysthe Great Western, for instance. There you see them properly planted, well cleaned, and properly sheared-in fact, hedges worthy our best attention. We have often heard Mr. Sharp complain to the unfortunate nurseryman from whom he purchased his few thousand Quicks, that many of them died, when perhaps, as is very often the case, no care was taken in the first place to give them proper accommodation. First, then, the soil certainly, in every instance, should be trenched; and if manured, the plants will repay it. Always plant, if the nature of the soil will permit, upon the same level as the field, not upon elevated banks. Place a fence-constructed with piles about eight or nine feet apart, with two horizontal rails-for protection. Then select

:

two or three years' transplanted plants; and when the plants are well established, say the second year, cut them down within six or eight inches of the ground. The following year cut them to about two or three feet, according to their strength; then the hedge is made. Establishing a good bushy bottom is the principle to aim at. It is a very bad practice to thrust large bundles of bushes into decayed places or gaps it makes the place larger. It is far better to select strong transplanted three or four-feet trees to fill up with, and give them temporary protection, and thus make up the slight deficiency. Never allow the hedge to produce timber, as you very often see; for after it is cut down, besides the sacrifice for one or two seasons, the old shoots generally throw up strong luxuriant thorny shoots, and form a bad bottom in return. Should the above fence not be practicable, a low bank might be made, putting in plenty of plants between each layer of turf and soil; this last suggestion does not make so perfect a hedge as the former described plan.

ECONOMY IN BREAD.-No. 5.
MAIZE BREAD.

SIR,-Maize may be considered as nourishing as wheat, but will not rise like wheat into light bread; and maize flour raised with wheat flour is neither so pleasant in texture or flavour as wheat bread alone.

The maize requires first to be boiled to pulp, like rice, and so made up with the wheat flour into dough. The following recipe has been much recommended :

MAIZE BREAD.

To 14 lbs. of maize meal add a gallon of cold water (soft) and stir it up well; let it settle, and skim off the husk which floats on the top. It should then be boiled for three or four hours, if possible by steam, or the pan inserted in another containing water, boiling, which will prevent its burning to the bottom; and covered, to prevent drying away. If the meal be good, it will have absorbed all the water that has not evaporated, and have become a thick porridge; the produce of the Southern states of America will take one fourth more water than the produce of Europe. This may be made up into dough with 14 lbs. wheat flour as the rice in our last-yeast and salt added-and divided into loaves as usual.

This has been tried here, but did not please so well as that with Carolina rice. On the other hand, the Americans themselves are very fond of " Mush," a sort of maize porridge, made as follows:

MUSH, AMERICAN.

"This is made in different ways; but the easiest mode is that which resembles the making of starch or arrow-root. Put five pints of water over the fire, in a pot or skillet; then take one pound of Indian meal, well sifted from the bran, and mix with a little cold water so as to make a thick batter; add salt. As soon as the water boils, add the batter, stir it well, and keep it stirred and boiling for at least twenty minutes.

"It should be about the consistence of hasty pudding, porridge, or stir-about; and may indeed be made in the same way. Take it up, and eat it with milk, butter, sugar, or treacle.

"This is the most manageable and convenient of all the preparations of maize; it is used daily in a large number of American families, and considered a most wholesome diet. What is not used at one meal, is cut into slices and fried or heated upon the gridiron at the next meal, and eaten with butter or treacle.'

This worked up into dough with four would be much like the maize bread given above, requiring, of course, more water to work in the wheat flour. And the proportion of maize may be much increased for those who like it. I have a statement of 38lbs. of bread from 141bs. of flour with 7lbs.

of maize. But for those who object to the maize flavour it is to be corrected with rice.

Maize bread with rice, and the compound of the two with M. Mege Mouries' improvement, to obtain the maximum excellent loaf at the minimum cost, the object of all these letters, are intended to form the subjects of our next. I. PRIDEAUX.

BUTTER-MAKING IN WINTER.

"Winter butter" has no very enviable reputation anywhere, and compared with that made in June, seems an entirely different article. Of course there are reasons for this-let us enumerate some of them.

1. The character of the food is changed from green and succulent herbage to dry hay, or, more generally, cornstalks and straw. There is really very little butter in the latter.

2. The season is changed from mild and warm to cold, bleak, and uncomfortable. There is a constant demand for fuel to keep up the animal heat; this is partly at the expense of the butter product.

3. The management of the milk becomes difficult. If kept in a cellar, and a little above freezing, the milk becomes bitter before the cream rises; if allowed to freeze, the cream rises at once, but is injured in quality, and will produce very white butter; if kept in the kitchen pantry, when very warm during the day and cold at night, it does not rise well, and is apt to

be bitter and acid.

Other reasons might be mentioned, but they will readily suggest themselves to the reader. Let us see what can be proposed to remedy the difficulties.

1. Feed well-not dry food alone-but grain and roots, as a substitute for grass. Carrots, turnips, beets, cabbages, etc., are all useful in keeping up the quality of the milk. Let their fodder be cut, and some nutritious slops be provided, if roots are not to be had; and it is well to cut the fodder in any case.

2. The comfort of cows should be carefully attended to. While they suffer from cold and filth, or foul air, they cannot yield as good milk as when in warm, clean stables, or in welllittered and sheltered yards. Water should also be providedit is the more needed when dry forage is consumed-and it should be so arranged that every animal could drink at will. A supply of salt is also necessary.

3. It is difficult to get a proper temperature for raising cream perfectly in winter. Some butter-makers scald their milk when first drawn from the cow; others let it stand twelve hours, and then place the pan containing the milk in a larger one filled with boiling water, and allowing it to stand twelve hours longer, find the cream raised perfectly. It is said that more and better butter can be made in this way than in any other.

Churning in winter, as usually managed, is often a serious operation. The cream stands too long generally, becoming very sour and bitter; or, it is too cold and froths up, filling the churn, but producing no butter though churned for hours. Let the cream-pot sit near the fire for a few hours before churning, stirring it occasionally that all may get warm alike, and when it is at a proper temperature, 55°-feeling a little warm to the finger-the churning will be an easy half-hour's job, and the butter as yellow and hard as the season will admit of.

We have found that cows generally gave better milk when fed on well-cured corn-fodder, than on second-rate hay, and with "a mess" of roots, apples, or pumpkins, would yield milk of very fair quality. Attention to securing a supply of proper food for cows, and better care of them, would go far to redeem the name of winter-butter from its present character.

J. H. B.